é | - ae 
E: he ‘ f MN Gad! i ha § 
(i PAE Se | EI se a a ek ia Dob. ints 


DPE TDS ING ONE ERIN ARTE SE a ER NEB LET NET OTANI ORME EE RS RM NOPE MLS DCCA | BORE IR AREA WE 


Health Education 


BY 


MAMIE C, TEX 
FOR 


EIGHTH YEAR 


To Harmonize with the Illinois State 
Course of Study, Seventh General 
Revision 


TREATS ALL THE WORK ON 
EIGHTH YEAR HEALTH EDUCATION 


PRICE 75 CENTS 


Seventh Year Health Educat’n, same price 
Seventh Year Com. Civics at same price 
Eighth Year Com. Civics at same price 
Seventh Year Agriculture at same price 
Eighth Year Agriculture at same price 
Seventh Year History at same _ price 
Eighth Year History at same price 
Seventh Year Georgraphy at same price 
Eighth Year Geography at same price 
Seventh Year Grammar at same price 
Eighth Year Grammar at same price 
Seventh Year Question Book, same price 
Eighth Year Question Book, same price 
Seventh Year Arithmetic at same price 
Eighth Year Arithmetic at same price 


Send all Orders to 
MAMIE C. TEX, Taylorville, Il. 


FOREWORD. 


An experience of several years in teaching this subject has 
proved that no one text book now in use is adapted to the demands 
of our Course of Study, and in order to meet these requirements, 
I present this booklet. 


It has been prepared expressly for my own classes, but it 
has also been the aim to adapt it to the use of any class in the 
Eighth Year following the Illinois.State*Course of Study. No 
pains have been spared to make it as accurate and complete as— 
possible. | 


It is not to be presumed that this booklet contains all that 
might be said on each topic, but such material is given as the 
average Eighth Year pupil:can understand and assimilate. 


In conclusion, this volume is submitted to you, my dear 
pupils and co-workers with the hope that it will perform its. 
mission as designed. 

MAMIE C. TEX, 
Taylorville, Il. 
December 1, 1925. 


ee 3) 


FIRST QUARTER. 


Note—The Course of Study says the work outlined under 
your “Science and Agriculture” is the basis for class studies dur- 
ing this quarter. Place much emphasis on the house flies and 
mosquitos, the places where they breed and their life hisories. 

Teacher must see tc it that pupils review the work in their 
“Science and Agriculture.’ That work was not included in this 
Health Education becouse. it was unnecessary expense to print it 
twice, therefore have the pupils refer to thew Science and. Agri- 
culture and after this is done, take up the Framework. of our 
Body, etc. 

Every day, scientists are coming more and more to the con- 
clusion that every factor of our environment plays a more or less 
important part in our physical well. being. Nothing is so insigni- 
ficant that it does not play its part in promoting or retarding the 
health and well being of the human race. Because of this new 
linking of the two. sciences—botany and physiology (including 
hygiene) an attempt has been made this year to so corrolate the 
two, subjects that their relationship may be made. very clear to 


every student. 


When we speak of botany we must include with it zoology, or 
the study of our animal life, as botany is the study of our plant 
life. When the term physiology is used, likewise we include the 
study of hygiene or sanitary living. : : 

But to see any relation between these four more or less dis- 
tinct branches of science, we must choose one, and around that 
as a nucleus, group the other three, showing their relations to the 
main topic as well as to each other. 

Since man and his well being is our chief interest, let us 
choose physiology—or the physical. structure of man—and 
around it group botany, zoology, and hygiene. 

We have had more or less physiology in earlier grades, so 
that the terminology and underlying facts are more or less known 


4 FIRST QUARTER 


to us. But to be sure that the bodily structure, its parts and their 
functions are quite clear to us, we will have a short review of 
them. 


Let us take the bony framework of our body. 


Framework of Our Body. 


The bones are a framework of rods and plates which make 
the body firmer and stiffen it for movement. All the bones prop- 
erly fitted form what is called the skeleton. No doubt you have 
seen the skeleton of some animals and perhaps that of a human 
being. You have observed that the bones outlast the other parts 
of the body substances. Long after the animal, or fleshy sub- 
stance has decayed the bones are well preserved. 

The bones give the body its shape and strength and besides 
furnish places for the attachment of the muscles. As the muscles 
are tied to the bones, we are enabled to move our limbs, thus caus- 
ing such acts as walking, running, throwing, turning, bending 
and all other movements. The bones also determine the size of 
the body. A small boned person is always little in stature. 

Besides the uses that have been given, the bones protect cer- 
tain organs of the body. The bones of the skull protect the brain, 
while the bones of the spinal column protect the spinal cord. The 
delicate organs of the ear and eye as well as the nose are protected 
by a bony covering. The internal organs ate also very well pro- 
tected. 

No one can study the human skeleton and fail to appreciate 
what nature has done in perfecting man’s body. Beginning with 
the head, we see how admirably every part is adapted for the 
work it is expected to do. The trunk, the upper and lower ex- 
tremities, and the head complete the parts of the body. 

In considering the general plan of the body, we note one 
significant fact and that is, that man is the only animal that can 
walk upright. Note for contrast the ape—by many considered 
our next kin. His head is so balanced he can not hold it upright 
for any length of time. The unusual length of his forearms 
shows that nature intended them to be used in walking. With — 


FIRST QUARTER 5 


man it is quite different. His arms are in such proportion to the 
rest of his body as to be of use to him for purposes other than 
that of locomotion. 

There are twenty-two bones in the skull—eight in the cran- 
ium and fourteen in the face. The cranium bones are: 

1 frontal 

2 temporal 

2 parietal 

1 occipital 

1 ethmoid 

1 sphenoid 

The bones of the face are: 

1 vomer 

2 palate 

2 nasal 

2 lachrymal 

2 malar 

2 superior maxillary 

1 inferior maxillary 

2 turbinated : 

The bones of the trunk number fifty-four in all. They in- 
clude the ribs, breast bone, the pelvis, and the back bone. The 
tongue bone is also one of the bones of the trunk. There are 
twenty-four ribs, twelve on each side. The seven upper are 
called the trwe ribs and the five lower are called the false ribs. 
The breast bone occupies the front of the chest. The pelvis fur- 
nishes a support upon which the organs of the abdomen rest. The 
back bone is composed of twenty-four vertebrae. The upper 
‘seven are called the cervical vertbrae, and are located in the neck. 
The next twelve are called the dorsal vertebrae and the next five 
are called the lumbar vertebrae. All of these bones, together form 
a bony box that protects the most vital organs of man, the lungs, 
heart, stomach, liver, kidneys, and intestines. The back bone is 
not perfectly straight but makes a _ series of curves. 
These curves are forward in the neck and abdomen. These 
curves help to protect the brain from sudden jars. Between the 


6 FIRST QUARTER 


little bones in the back bones are thick pads of gristle which 
serve as springs or cushions. The vertebrae. are held together 
firmly by ligaments so that the back has a great deal of strength. 
There is an opening through the spinal column for the passage of 
the spinal cord. The “atlas” is at the top of the spinal column 
and supports the head. It is not shaped like the other vertebrae 
and has no cushions above or below. The “axis” forms a pivot on 
which the head turns. These bones make possible the forward 
and backward movements of the head as well as those from side 
to side. In other words they enable one to move the head in many 
ways. 7 

At the lower end of the spinal column are two very irregular 
bones; these two irregular bones in childhood are composed of 
nine pieces, five of which unite to form one bone and four the 
other. 


The bones of the upper limbs consist of the collar bone, the 
shoulder blade, the upper arm bone, the lower arm bones, the 
bones of the wrist, and the bones of the fingers. 

The collar bone is a long, slender bone, at one end fastened 
to the breast bone, and at the other end it is attached to the 
shoulder blade. This bone keeps the shoulder from falling to the 
chest. | 

The shoulder blade is a thin, flat triangular bone. It lies out- 
side of the ribs, in the back of the chest. 

The upper arm bone is called the humerus, and the lower 
arm bones are the luna and radius. The ulna is on the inside of 
the arm and the radius on the outside. These bones cross when 
the hand is turned. P 

There are eight little bones in the wrist and they are called 
the carpal bones. 

In the palm of the hand are five bones, and are called the 
meta carpal bones. There are fourteen bones in the finges called 
the phalanges. 

The bones of the lower extremities are the femur, patella, the 
leg, and the foot. ' 

The femur or thigh bone is the longest bone in the body. It- 
extends from the hip joint to the knee. 


FIRST QUARTER a 


The patella or knee pan, is a chestnut shaped bones 

The two lower leg bones are called the tibia and fibula. They 
extend from the knee to the ankle. The tibia is the larger bone 
and is in front of the fibula. 

There is a heel bone and six bones in the ankle known as the 
tarsal bones. : 

In the instep are five bones called the metatarsal bones. In 
the toes are fourteen bones called the phalanges. 


Function of Curves in the Spinal Column, Arches of Foot and 
Joints in Protecting Body from Jar. 


The chief function of the curves in the spinal column 1s to 
prevent jar to the head. If the spinal column were straight and 
rigid, every time we jumped from a height of our head would re- 
ceive such a jolt it would almost render us unconscious. The 
curves in the spine may be likened to Ford “shock absorbers.” 


The curves in the arches of the foot are to give elasticity to 
our steps. We have but to note the difference in the way a young 
person walks and in the way an old man plods along. The young 
person steps quickly and gracefully while the old person plants 
the foot firmly and slowly upon the ground. If this arch is lack- 
ing in the young, we speak of it as “flat foot.” In the late draft 
95% of the negroes and 49% of white men examined were found 
to be suffering with this trouble. So great was the number that 
steps were taken at once to remedy the defect. Camp Dix, in 
New Jersey, became the center of this work, and five wards in the 
orthopedic department were given over to patients suffering with ° 
flat foot. This is the importance that army surgeons attach to the 
arch in the human foot. An extremely high arch at one time was 
considered a mark of royal birth. However that may be we never 
see a person with a high arch who does not walk quickly, grace- 
_ fully and without tireing readily. 

The joints of the body protect it from jars in many ways. If 
you hold a long pole in one hand and some one has hold of the 
other hand, if you strike a sudden sharp blow on your end, the 
person at the other gets the full force of the blow, but if instead 


8 FIRST QUARTER 


of a pole held a chain of several links, no amount of blows at 
your end would affect the person at the other. Just so it is with 
our joints. A blow on one of our fingers will scarcely be felt 
beyond the hand, but were the hand and arm one single bone, the 
force of the blow would be felt to the shoulder. This holds true 
all over the body while our joints add much to the efficiency of the 
body, they also play an equally important part in protecting it 
from injury. 

At one time a child born with deformed bones, was consid- 
ered a hopeless burden on its parents, and little attention was paid 
to straightening out the deformity. That is now all changed, and 
the orthopedic department of our large hospitals are crowded 
with seekers after straight sound bodies. Massage is one of the 
means taken to loosen up stiff joints, humped backs, and lame feet. 
The bones are often treated under electric heaters. Then various 
corrective exercises are practiced by the patient. _Scarcly more 
than a mere suggestion of the work done can be given here. Dr. 
Adolph Lorens, of Vienna, Austria, came to America in 1904 and 
first demonstrated the benefits which could be gained front treat- 
ments. At present Captain Rolland Meisenbach, of Buffalo, N. 
Y., is the leader in the work among our new recruits. In passing 
it may be well to say that the person who depends on arch support 
to correct broken arches is about as wise as the man who depends 
on a crutch to set a broken leg. 

Some of the causes of abnormal curves are: unnatural po- 
sitions either sitting, standing or walking, tight clothing and too 
licavy work while young. Ill fitting shoes, French heels or stand- 
ing too long on the feet are the main causes of broken arches. 


Bones—Shape—Structure. 


The bones in different parts of the body have a variety 
of shapes. The skull is made up of shell-shaped bones. In the 
fingers and toes are small slender ones and those in the wrists and 
ankles are round. The bones of the arms and legs are of course 
long and somewhat cylindrical in form. Perhaps the back bone 
itself is the most peculiar of all the bones. It is made up of a col- 
lection of circular rings of bone. Each little bone is very irregular 


FIRST QUARTER 9 


in shape and fits into its next door neighbor very intricately. A 
hollow cavity is left through the center for the passage of the 
spinal cord and for its protection. 

Bones vary much in shape and size, but their structure is 
much the same. They are covered with a tough membrane called 
the periosteum. They are hollow or spongy on the inside and 
hard and solid on the outside. The long bones furnish the great- 
est strength in proportion to their weight. Solid bones would be 
rather too heavy for the body, and all the bones are constructed so 
as to be light as well as strong. It is said that the hollow spaces 
in. the bones of birds are filled with air in order to make them 
lighter for flying. The bones of short, square and flattened shape 
are spongy: This is true of such as those of the skull, wrists, and 
hips. The spongy places are filled with soft tissue called red 
marrow. It is very interesting here to mention the fact that the 
red and white corpuscles originate in the red marrow. 

In conclusion, if one would be better informed he should 
make an examination of the bones of the skeleton, studying cross 
sections as well as sections made lengthwise. 

When bones are to be used for fertilizer, the fat and gelatin 
are removed by boiling; they can then be readily acted on by the 
weather and will hastily decay. The oil and fat which they con- 
tain is used in the manufacture of soap and lubricants. Of course 
it must be understood that before the bones are used for fertilizer 
they are ground to dust. The valuable part, which is the fertilizer, 
is composed of phosphate of lime. 


Composition of Bones. 


It has been determined that the bones are composed of animal 
and mineral matter. The animal matter toughens them and rend- 
ers them less brittle. The mineral matter consists largely of lime. 
This is gradually built into the bones from early childhood. In 
the bones of a child there is much more animal matter in propor- 
tion to the mineral than in the adult. Consequently its bones are 
not so easily broken. It is possible to remove the line from bone 
substance by soaking it in a weak acid. A bone so treated can 
then be very easily bent, although it will retain its general shape. 


10 FIRST QUARTER 


On the other hand, it is quite easy to remove the animal matter. 
Simply burn a bone and the animal substance will be consumed, 
leaving it much lighter and more brittle. Lime and chalk will not 
burn and so there is left the components that makes the bones 
stiff and firm. 


Growth and Repair of Bones. 


It should be stated that bone is a living tissue and receive its 
food from the blood. If some of the cells be left undisturbed, the 
bone will be reproduced. The end of a young bone may,be re- 
moved and afterwards it will be reproduced. If the periosteum. 
be uninjured, it will cause the formation of a new bone, because : 
the periosteum helps to nourish the bones. 

When a bone is broken, the cells are injured and blood ves- 
sels and nerves torn. Naturally such an accident is attended with 
much pain and suffering. The cells at once set about reproducing 
themselves and fill in the space with new connective tissue. The 
next step is the depositing of lime in the new tissue and this fol- 
lows in a very few weeks. The union is then complete, but some 
time must pass before the bone is strong again. A fractured bone 
will generally heal within three to six weeks, but some timés re- 
quires more time. It is said that in the temperate zones, bones 
reach their perfection‘in men between the ages of twenty and 
twenty-five, and very few changes take place from this age to 
fifty,-and after the age of fifty they grow thinner, lighter and 
more brittle. 


Purposes of Marrow. 


There are two purposes of the marrow of bones—just as 
there are two kinds of marrow. In the long tube-like bones, such 
as the femur, we find the hollow part filled with yellow marrow, 
composed of blood vessels and fat. This is for the purpose of © 
_ nourishing the bone. 

The red marrow is found in the cavaties in the spongy parts 
of the bones such as the ends of the femur. Recent investigations 
have proved that this marrow produces the red corpuscles found © 
in the blood. 


FIRST QUARTER 11 


Periosteum. 


The periosteum is the close clinging fibrous tissue covering 
the bone. It is composed of connective tissue and blood vessels. 
This is seldom found at the ends of the bones, but is replaced 
there by the cartilage. In the periosteum, are the blood vessels 
which pass into the bone to supply it with nourishment. It grows 
closely to the bone but may be removed by scraping. 


Joints. 


A joint is formed where two bones unite. The surfaces 
which make the contact are covered with a layer of smooth, 
polished cartilage. This prevents jars and reduces friction. The 
joints that allows movements are covered with a synovial mem- 
brane. This membrane secrets a fluid like the white of an egg 
which moistens and lubricates the joints. If this fluid were ab- 
sent, the joint would soon become so dry that it would creak. 
The bones are held in place by strong bands of tissue, called liga- 
ments. They are able to stand a great strain without injury, but, 
besides these, the muscles that surround the joints help to make 
the bones stay in place. The shoulder joint is of such great im- 
portance that it is covered completely with muscles and ligaments 
which render it very strong. 


Uses of Joints. 


If one has ever seen a person with a stiff knee or elbow joint, 
he can readily understand the value of joints that nature provided 
for us. If it were not for our joints every time we wanted any- 
thing from the floor the whole body would have to rest on the 
floor before we could reach vt. If it were not for our joints al- 
most all human action would be impossible. If we but watch a 
group of acrobats a few minutes we can better appreciate the 
joints of the human body, for by training, they come to the point 
where the whole body is as supple as though no bones existed but 
rather that the body was a succession of joints. The writer a 
short time ago saw an Arabian acrobat who turned somersaults 
five times in succession, his feet striking the floor but once, and 
that at the third run. 


12 FIRST QUARTER 


Types of Joints. 


There are movable and immovable joits. Some admit of a 
great deal of movement and others none. Between these two ex- 
tremes are joints capable of various degrees of motion. A variety 
of names have been applied to the different kinds of joints. Some 
authors class them as flexible and inflexible, making the former 
include the joints of the limbs and the latter those of the head 
and trunk. 


The joints of the skull are immovable. Some of the bones 
are joined together by cartilage during childhood, but later this 
hardens into bone. The thick bones of the top of the skull are 
dovetailed together and cannot be separated. They admit of very 
little, if any, movement. Between the vertebrae of the back bone 
are pads of cartilage which admit of slight movement and reduce 
jars that might prove injurious to the spine. The ribs are joined 
to the breast bone with cartilage, but this takes up lime and be- 


comes bone in later life. All these joints may be classed as in- | 


flexible. 


The hinge jowmt permits movement in but two directions. 
The joint at the elbow belongs to this class. If one were to look 
for other joints of this kind, he would find them at the knees. 
Can you think of other hinge joints? 


Some joints of unusual strength are necessary. The ball- 


and-socket joint fulfills this purpose. In this kind the rounded 
end of one bone fits into the depression or socket of another. The 
bone with the rounded end can move freely in any direction, but 
the shape of the socket limits the extent of the movement some- 
what. The shoulder joint is an example of a shallow socket, while 
that of the hip has a very deep one. These joints are strengthened 
by many ligaments and muscles. | 


There remains to be mentioned the. pivot joimt. The best 
example of such a joint is to be found where the head and atlas 
turn upon the pivot of the axis. This permits of the rotary mo- 
tions of the head with which every one is familiar. 


FIRST QUARTER 13 


Ligaments. 


The ligaments are bands of tough inelastic tissue. Their use 
is to hold the ends of the bones in joint and protect their move- 
ments. The ligaments are capable of withstanding great strain, 
but in spite of this they sometimes become broken or torn so that 
they will no longer hold the bones in their place and the bone 1s 
then said to be out of joint.or dislocated. Some of the ligaments 
are as thin as tissue paper, while others are very thick. 


Diseases and Deformities of Bones; Due to Infections, 
Malnutrition. 


The bones are subject to diseases quite as much as any other 
tissue of the body. Jnuflamation and even abcesses often result 
from bruises. The bones become very tender and the diseased 
portion very painful. Consumption of the bone is not an uncom- 
mon disease. It is very difficult of treatment and is greatly to be 
dreaded. Pieces of bone sometimes die, and the periosteum will 
then form new bone. Generally bone wastes away more slowly 
than it is reformed. Bones are often broken, but may or may not 
become diseased at the point of fracture. The cells reproduce 
themselves and soon fill the space at the broken point. Then lime 
is soon deposited there to harden the place. Sometimes the bones 
soften; this results from an unhealthful condition of the bone 
tissue. Rickets and felons are also diseased condition of bones. 

Some bone diseases are due to infection, such as tuberculosis 
and felon, while others are due to malnutrition. We have seen 
how the bones are fed by the blood vessels in the periosteum. 
Hence, if the blood is not pure and rich, we cannot expect the 
bones to be other than deformed or diseased. For this reason it 
is more often that we find bone disease in tenement districts. A 
lack of mineral matters such as lime is one source of small weak 
bones. For this reason, children should have plenty of milk, eggs, 
and butter. Anything that impoverishes the blood interferes with 
bone growth. 

The preceeding pages will give us a definite idea of our 
skeleton, its parts, arrangements and uses. But the skeleton alone 
would be of little use to us. It must be covered with flesh, blood, 
and muscles. 


14 FIRST QUARTER 


Muscles acting with the aid of the bones produce motion. 
Muscles are therefore of great importance in our study of the 
human body and its relation to its environment. If we could not 
move, we would rank with but plant life. 

All motion in the body is produced by muscles. Not only 
is this true in preparing and earning our food, but in chewing, 
swallowing and digesting it. The muscles are the means of pull- 
ing the bones in any desired direction, and when we consider 
the infinite number of movements the human body is capable of, 
we are not surprised to find that there are over five hundred 
muscles to perform this motion. : 

The contraction of the muscles makes it necessary that they 
be well supplied with fuel food. Most of this 1s taken in the form 
of sugar and 1s burned in the muscles, producing heat. When the 
surplus food is used up, a demand is made for more. The brain 
interprets, this request as hunger and we say that exercise has 
made us hungry. The fuel is brought to the muscles through the 
blood. When there is a demand for more, the nervous impulses 
quicken and the action of the heart and the circulation becomes 
more vigorous. Much heat is then distributed to all parts of the 
body. Every one is familiar with the fact that exercise increases 
the heat of the body. A man at work on a cold day will keep 
much warmer than an idle person, because exercise of the muscles 
produces heat. The burning of the fuel food in the muscle cells 
not only produce heat, but also gives rise to waste materials. 
These waste materials may be removed by the blood, and will if 
left cause poisoning. When they are not removed, soreness re- 
sults. Hot water applied to the muscles will help them to get this 
poisonous matter away and thus reduce the soreness. Too much 
exercise may prove injurious, but the proper amount is beneficial. 


Classes of Muscles. 


Aside from the skeleton, the greater part of the body is 
muscle. It is said to comprise about one-half of the body weight. 
If you have observed the flesh of a slaughtered animal, you have 
discovered the dark red portion which we call lean meat. This 
is muscle. : 


FIRST QUARTER 15 


Muscles are divided: into two classes, the voluntary and in- 
voluntary. _ Voluntary muscles are under the control of the will, 
while the involuntary muscles are not so cotnrolled. To some ex- 
tent we may control the.involuntary muscles as in the act of 
breathing. The voluntary muscles are tied to the bones and thus 
make possible our many movements. On the other hand, the in- 
voluntary muscles are found in the walls of the hollow organs, 
such as the abdominal cavity. 

Examples of the voluntary muscles are the muscles which 
control the arm and leg, the muscles that turn the head, and the 
muscles of the lower jaw. 

Examples of the involuntary muscles are the muscles that 
control the heart, stomach, and other internal organs: 


Shapes of the Muscles. 


The muscles are of various shapes, as suited to the work they 
are to perform. The gullet is a fleshy tube of involuntary muscle. 
Some muscles, as the heart, are hollow. Circular muscles are 
found in the mouth and eyes. The diaphragm is a broad, flat 
muscle, being the broadest in the body. Other muscles are long 
and taper at both ends, as the muscle we use to cross the legs. 
Muscles change their shape, from normal when contracted or ex- 
panded. 


Structure of the Muscles. 


The muscles are composed of little bundles, each bundle 
made up of muscular fibres. 1f one should boil a piece of beef, 
these little bundles appear as dark red strings. 

The structure of involuntary muscle, though different from 
the voluntary muscle is quite simple. Little spindle shaped cells 
are held together by a glue-like substance. A diluted acid will dis- 
solve the glue and leave the cells separate from each other. 


Attachment of the Muscles. 


Perhaps you have wondered how the voluntary muscles are 
tied to the bones. Jt 1s by means of tendons. A tendon appears 


16 FIRST QUARTER 


to be a white cord of fibrous tissue and has great strength. If 
you look real closely at a tendon, you probably cannot tell where 
it leaves off to become muscle at one end and periosteum or bone 
at the other. A tendon runs in a groove lined with synovial mem-~ 
brane and thus works very smoothly without friction. The ten- 
dons are quite long, especially where the parts are slender; the 
fingers are supplied by tendons from the muscles in the upper 
part of the forearm. 


Action of Muscles on Bones as Levers. 


When we grasp a heavy weight in the hand and lift it, it is 
the biceps, a muscle of the upper arm, that does the work. This 
muscle is attached at the top by two tendons to the shoulder blade. 
The lower arm is used as a lever with the elbow as a fixed point. 
The slight contraction of the biceps has caused the weight to be 
moved a much greater distance than it contracted itself. This 
was accomplished by the co-operation of muscles and bones, and 
this is the service the bones usually render the muscles. They 
change a slow short movement into a long swift one. Though the 
biceps perhaps contracted no more than an inch, the bone moved 
a foot or more. Thus when the muscles act on the bones as levers, 
the bones greatly increase both the rate and range of motion. 


Antagonistic Action. 


Most muscles are arranged in pairs. The muscles that ex- 
tend along the limb either straighten it or bend it. The former are 
called “extensors” and the latter “flexors.” When muscles cause 
such motion in opposite directions, they are known as “antagon- 
ists”; in the upper arm are the biceps and triceps. 


Acquiring and Maintaining of Healthful Posture. 


_ A flat chest and round shoulders does not so much indicate 
weak lungs as it does weak back muscles which support the body. 
These muscles have become weak from constant relaxation while 
at work. This deformity may result from rowing a boat, bending 


FIRST QUARTER 17 


over a desk, table or kitchen sink, or from anything which causes 
us to stoop over a good deal. It is as common among farmers as 
office workers, and is even less excusable. It gives one an awk- 
ward appearance and invites lung diseases. This may be over- 
come by special exercises which tend to strengthen the muscles of 
the back. Shoulder braces are of little use except as a reminder 
“to sit up.” One must first learn self control and then acquiring 
of a healthful posture is easy. /m sitting one should sit back in 
_ the seat, with back straight. In standing, the chest should be out, 

hips back and head erect. Many exercises help to acquire these 
postures, but constant care is the only thing that will help us 
maintain them. After a time they become habitual, then an incor- 
rect position proves exceedingly uncomfortable. 


Motion and Heat Result of Changes in Muscle; Muscles Re- 
quire Oxygen and Food for These Changes. 


Motion and heat are both forms of energy. They are but a 
changed form of energy generated by the oxidation of food stored 
in the muscle cells. This oxidation is as yet imperfectly under- 
stood, but we do know that it releases energy in the form of heat 
or motion. The greater the motion, the greater the heat, because 
of the greater amount of oxidation taking place. But these 
changes cause a poisonous waste to be formed which we now 
recognize as the causes of fatigue. These poisons result in a 
temporary paralysis of the nerves of the muscles but if the 
worker rests for a time the blood soon carries the poisons out of 
the system. 


Since the amount of heat and energy we can expect from 
our muscles depends on the oxidation of food stored up in their 
cells we can see how very necessary pure fresh air and good 
healthful food are to muscular activity. A person deprived of 
pure air and wholesome food would soon be so weak he would be 
unable to perform work of any kind. The oxygen is carried from 
the lungs by the blood to the cells of the muscles where the 
change takes place. 


18 FIRST QUARTER 


Necessity for Circulation. 


In order for motion and heat to be released from the muscles, 
it is necessary that the blood circulate. For two reasons this is 
true. Oxygen must be carried to the muscle cell-and this work 
is done by the blood circulating through the body. The second~ 
need of the circulation is to remove the toxins of fatigue which — 
result from oxidation. 


Necessity of Physical Exercise. 


The general health of the body depends much upon the 
exercise one takes. During exercise, the cells take extra food 
and increase their size and strength. Respiration, digestion, and 
circulation receive added vigor through exercise of the muscles of 
the body. Indigestion is often due to the lack of physical exer- 
cise. As to the kind of exercise one should engage in, it may be 
said that the one he likes best is the correct one. Games are 
more delightful than formal exercises and are likely to be much 
more enjoyed. For this reason a vigorous outdoor game is the 
very best kind of exercise. Walking and riding are also very 
good. Swimming is to be commended, because it involves the use 
of many muscles. Running races is good exercise. The import- 
ance of exercise should be clearly impresed upon every one. Fresh 
air and exercise together have furnished a cure in many cases 
apparently almost hopeless. Do not lose sight of the fact that 
games are perhaps the very best forms of exercises and that work 
ranks next. The gymnasium is, of course, good, but is not good 
for all cases. Special cases should be assigned to the gymnasium. 
Children should be encouraged in play ground games. It is in- 
deed a poor teacher who cannot provide simple outdoor games for 
her children. Several good books on the subject may be had in 
the city libraries and almost any good book company publishes 
one or more of them. 


The Blood. 


Just as the bones are dependent upon the muscles for their 
usefulness, so are the muscles dependent upon another part of the 


FIRST QUARTER 19 


body—-this is the blood. 'We'have touched upon this topic in a 
preceeding paragraph. We will now study the circulation in more 
detail. We will see what'the composition of the blood is, how it 
- performs its works, and how it is renewed and freshened. Upon 
a good healthy circulation depends the entire well being of the 
body. 

When we speak of the circulation of the blood, we mean the 
functions performed by the heart, veins, arteries, and capilaries. 


Blood—Composition. 

The blood is the means whereby the circulation is carried on. 
It is found in almost all parts of the body—the hair, nails, and 
cuticle excepted. The quantity found in various bodies differs. 
Some of our most eminent authorities place it at about one-thir- 
teenth of the body weight. 

It is composed of a thin, colorless liquid known as the plasma. 
This is filled with red disks or cells. These cells vary in size and 
shape, but in human blood are generally rounded at the edges and 
concave on both sides. Some authorities declare that from the 
size and shape of these disks they can tell with accuracy whether 
a given specimen is human or animal blood. Others, however, 
disagree and maintain that the cell shapes vary even in the same 
body. It is difficult to realize how very small these disks are 
until we consider it would require three thousand five hundred 
placed side by side to measure an inch, and sixteen thousand piled, 
one upon another, to measure the same length. Besides these cells 
the blood also contains many other substances. Albumen—the 
substance found nearly pure in the white of an egg—is always 
found in the blood of a healthy person as are also various mineral 
substances—such as lime, magnesia, iron, potash, phosphorus, etc. 
It has been stated by one.author, that enough iron has been found 
in the ashes of a cremated body to form a mourning ring. The 
real composition of the blood depends largely upon the habits and 
physical condition of the person under consideration. 


Necessity For Blood in the Body. 
The uses of the blood are two fold: First, to build up the 
bones and muscles, and second, for oxidation. The first is ac- 
complished by the plasma, which is rich in mineral matter for the 


20 FIRST QUARTER 


bones and in albumen for the muscles. The second, “oxidation,” 
we know less about. The red disks of the blood are the- air 
carriers. They contain the oxygen, so essential to all animal life. 
Wherever any manifestation of heat or energy is made, there 
oxygen is used. It not only tears down but actually consumes 
part of muscle and other tissue, much as fuel is burned in a stove. 
Just what changes take place in this process is not quite clear, 
and only this can we assert with assurance—oxygen disappears, 
carbondioxide appears, energy is released, and force is exhibited 
as motion, heat, and energy. 


Where the Blood Must Circulate. 


The blood must circulate in all parts of the body except in 
modifications of the cuticle. But there are two regions where the 
blood can not be checked in tts circulation, for even a very short 
space of time without causing serious trouble, and that is through 
the lungs and along the digestive tract. The reason is obvious. 
The oxygen of the air is carried by the blood to all parts of the 
body, and the body cannot long do without this supply. Then, too, 
the blood enmeshes the digestive tract in a network of vessels, and 
so takes up, absorbs, and assimilates the digested food as it is 
ready for the need of the body. 

This absorption is accomplished in a sort of osmosis fashion 
and is carried on the entire length of the digestive tract from the 
stomach on down, most being accomplished from the stomach and 
small intestines. 


Gains and Losses of the Blood. 


The blood in a capillary is separated from the living body 
cells by a wall so very thin that it offers no obstruction to the 
passage of oxygen from the red blood cells. When the blood 
gives up oxygen to the cells, it receives in turn carbonic acid gas, 
and various impurities. It takes but an instant to make the 
change. The arteries are simply tubes which carry the blood to 
the capillaries, where all the work of nourishing the cells is per- 
formed. For the sake of brevity, one may say in general that the 


. FIRST QUARTER 21 


blood in its circulation through the body gives up oxygen and 
gathers up waste, but if one should trace a drop of blood from the 
time it left some certain point in the body until it returned to that 
spot, the changes would be many and varied. The capillaries 
around the stomach and intestines gather up the digested food, 
which, with the blood, is carried by the portal vein to the liver. 
When it passes through the liver, it is purified of some of the irri- 
tating substances it gathered from the food tube. When it leaves 
the liver, it is taken to the vena cava. Here the blood is found to 
be rich in food substances but poor in oxygen. This mixes with 
the impure blood brought back by the veins, is carried to the heart 
and then sent to the lungs. It is in the lungs that the exchange of 
impurities is made for oxygen. This oxygen is picked up by the 
red corpuscles and causes the blood to look red and is known as 
arterial blood. This rich, bright blood is then poured in the left 
side of the heart, and from there it is sent out over the body to 
build up and repair the waste and worn parts. 


Functions of Corpuscles. 


There are two kinds of corpuscles in the blood—the white 
and the red corpuscles. The white are supposed to be the scavan- 
gers of the system, destroying poisons and injurious foreign sub- 
stances, which find entrance into the blood. The red corpuscles 
are the oxygen carriers of the blood, and have to do with oxida- 
tion of food. While we speak very glibly of this process, we really 
understand it very little. But we do know that if a person is 
healthy and strong, his blood will have a greater number of red 
corpuscles than the blood of a sickly person. 


Clotting of Blood; Use. 


When blood is exposed to air it thickens, coagulates, or as we 
say, clots. This is most important since if this did not take place, 
even a very small wound would cause us to bleed to death. When 
blood clots, the corpuscles lose their bright red color, a clear liquid 
called serum separates, and a white insoluable proteid, fibrous in 
nature, is formed. 


99 FIRST QUARTER 


Organs of Circulation. Blood Tubes; Names, Structure, and 
Locaton of Each, 


The blood tubes of the bodies are the arteries, veins, and capil- 
laries. The arteries are the tubes which carry the blood from the 
heart. With the exception of the pulmonary artery, all the arteries 
carry red blood. The ancients so named the arteries (aer—air, 
and teero, I contain) because after death they were always found 
to be empty, and were therefore supposed to be air carriers. It 
was left for Harvey in 1619 to discover the circulation of the 
blood, and therefore, the proper relation of arteries, veins, and 
capillaries. : 


The veins are the tube-like canals which carry the blood to 
the heart. They carry the dark venous blood. To this there is 
the one exception of the pulmonary veins. 

The capillaries form a fine net work of tubes, which unite the 
ends of arteries and veins: They so unite with both these that it 
is often difficult to tell where an artery ends and a vein begins. So 
closely are they placed that we can not injure ourselves in the 
slightest way without injuring great numbers of them. It is in the 
capillaries that the blood deposits its oxygen and gives up its car- 
bonic acid. 


Structure and Location of the Arteries. 


The arteries are composed of an elastic tissue. This yields 
at every heart throb, until the blood is again forced into them and 
on its way.. This elastic tissue is of a very tough nature, so that it 
can withstand the heavy pressure of the blood when the heart 
sends it into them. After death, the blood leaves the arteries and ~ 
accumulates in the venous system. ‘The arteries are lined with a 
very smooth membrane so as not to interfere with the circulation. 
The arteries are usually located as far from the surface as pos- 
sibleout of harm’s way. -In this way they are protected by 
muscles and bones. Most of them hug the bones and for the 
greater part they take the shortest routes and therefore lie mainly 
in straight or nearly straight lines. 


FIRST QUARTER a 23 


Structure and Location of Venis. 


Since the veins do not receive the direct heart pressure, their 
walls are thinner and not so elastic as the arteries. The veins at 
first are minute but gradually unite to form larger vessels until 
they finally form the two large veins, the vena cava ascending and 
the vena cava descending—one of these empties into the upper 
part of the auricle and the other into the lower. We can plainly 
see some of the veins just beneath the skin on the back of the 
hand. 


Structure and Location of the Capillaries. 


The capillaries are a system of very minute blood vessels 
which connect the end of the arteries to the veins. 


Valves in the Veins. 


For the same reason that we find valves in the heart we also 
find them in the veins. The valves in the veins are similar in 
structure to the semi-lunar valves of the heart, and are found 
more numerously in the lower extremities, for here the force of 
gravity would interfere and act in opposition to the current of the 
blood, were there no special provision to prevent this. There are 
no valves in the veins of the brain or lungs. 


General Circulation of the Blood. 


The time required for all the blood in the body to pass 
through the heart can be found only by estimation. It does not 
require near the amount of time that one would think it would. 
It would not be the same in all persons. The habits and physical 
condition of the person under examination would affect the time 
to a great extent. At every pulsation it has been found that on an 
average the heart discharges about four ounces through each ven- 
tricle. By a similar reckoning we find that it takes. about forty 
seconds for the blood to make the complete circuit of the body. 
We know the heart beats seventy times a minute and about four 
ounces leave it at each beat. At this rate about two hundred eighty 


24 . FIRST QUARTER 


ounces or seventeen pounds would pass through it in a minute, 
but the average person has but twelve pounds and this amount 
would make the circuit in about forty seconds. 


The general circulation is sometimes called the systematic 
circulation while the circulation through the lungs is known as 
the pulmonary circulation. 


Pulmonary Circulation of the Blood. 


When the blood enters the veins from the capillaries, it has 
become foul with the waste of the body and must be sent to the 
lungs to give off its impurities and to receive oxygen. To reach 
the lungs, it is first poured into the right auricle, then passing 
through the tricuspid valve it empties into the right ventricle. 
From here it is driven past the semi-lunar valves through the pul- 
monary artery to the lungs. This artery divides and subdivides 
into small branches, until these form a network of capillaries in 
the lungs. In the lungs, the blood is separated from the air only 
by the thin walls of the capillaries. It is through these thin walls 
that the oxygen of the air readily pentrates to the red blood cells. 
The carbonic gas and moisture pass out into the air. From the 
instant of exchange, the blood which formerly was dark now be- 
comes a bright red color, and is called arterial blood. From the 
capillaries in the lungs, the blood collects into the four pulmonary 
veins, and is then carried to the left auricle, forced past the bi- 
cuspid valve to the left ventricle, and from here it passes through 
the semilunar valves into the great aorta, which is the main trunk 
of the arterial system. When the blood leaves the left side of the 
heart, it is forced through the arteries and back by the veins and 
is carried to the right side of the heart where it is purified. 


Portal Circulation of the Blood. 


The circulation of the blood through the liver is sometimes 
called the portal circulation. The digested food and the blood 
from the digestive organs is carried to the liver by means of the 
portal vein. After the blood stays a short time in the liver, it 
passes into the current of the blood to the heart and then agents 
the system. 


FIRST QUARTER 25 


Structure of the Heart. 


The heart is the untiring little engine which propels the blood. 

The heart is a hollow pear shaped muscle, about the size of 
the fist. It hangs just a little to the left of the center of the 
chest, with its point downward. It is enclosed in a loose sac of 
serous membrane known as the “pericardium.” It may be likened 
very much to that old fashioned headdress—the cotton night cap 
—for in just such a manner is the heart enclosed in the pericar- 
dium. The walls of the heart are made of strong muscles, while 
within the heart are four chambers or cavaties. 


Cavities of the Heart. 


The two upper cavaties are called auricles and the two lower 
cavities are the ventricles. In an adult each cavity contains about 
a wine glass full. The upper ones derive their name—auricles— 
from the appendages on the side which have a resemblance to dog 
ears. The auricles and ventricles on each side communicate with 
one another, but there is no direct communication between the 
right and left halves of the heart. They are entirely distinct and 
perform different functions in that the left side propels the red 
blood and the right, the dark. Inasmuch as the cavaties fulfill 
different purposes—their structure is correspondingly unlike. The 
upper chambers are merely receptacles for the blood—the left, as 
it returns bright and pure from the lungs and the right, as it comes 
dark and foul from the circuit through the body. In these cham- 
bers, it is held, and given over to the ventricles as needed. The 
work of the auricle being so light, their walls are thin. But with 
the ventricles the case is different. These cavaties force the blood 
to all parts of the body—the left to the farthest parts, and the 
right back to the lungs. The left auricle must drive the blood 
much farther than the right, consequently it is much more 
stronger even than the right. 


Valves of the Heart. 


In every pump, there must be valves to keep the liquid from 
flowing backward. The heart is provided with these valves, two 
between the auricles and ventricles and two at the opening of the 


26 FIRST QUARTER 


arteries to keep the blood from being forced back into the ventri- 
cles when the walls are relaxed, and the chambers are opened 
after each beat. Where the veins empty into the auricles, no 
valves are found because none are needed. The auricles do not 
contract with much force, and, the natural tendency of the blood 
being to flow downward, there is little need for valves to prevent 
its return into the veins above. But with the ventricles, the need 
of valves is imperative. The ventricles must.contract with suffi- 
cient force to send the blood to the farthest part of the body. The 
ventricles in contracting would force blood backward into. the 
veins and auricles and on into the arteries. Then, when 
the heart relaxed, the blood would crowd back from 
both ways into the ventricles. This danger is overcame by 
the ingenious arrangement of valves, one being between each 
auricle and ventricle and one at the opening of the ventricle into 
the artery. With the exception of the valve which separates the 
left auricle from the left ventricle, all the valves have three flaps. 
The valves are so constructed as to permit the blood to pass in 
but one direction. Between the right auricle and ventricle, is the 
valve known as the tricuspid valve. Between the left auricle and 
ventricle is the bicuspid valve. This has but two flaps. In the 
passages from the ventricles into the arteries are valves known as 
the semilunar valves. Each is three little folds of membrane 
opening out in the direction in which the blood flows. 

The valves are made of double folds of the delicate mem- 
brane lining the heart. This membrane is known as the serous 
membrane and is found in all parts of the body not exposed to 
external air. These folds are strengthened by fibers which lie- 
between the folds. 


Nerves to Regulate Heart Beat, Amount of Blood to. Working 
and Resting Organs, Distribution As Affected 
By Heat and Cold. 


Two sets of nerves regulate the action of the heart. One 
set from the brain and the other from the spinal cord. = When 
one has been exercising physically, the spinal set start the heart to 
beating more forcibly and faster. 


FIRST QUARTER 27 


The action ofthe heart is much like that of suddenly squeez- 
ing a water soaked sponge. The veins pour the blood into the 
auricles. From there it passes into the ventricles. These then 
forcibly contract and the blood is sent on its way to all parts of 
the body. After the ventricles have emptied their contents into 
the arteries, the heart has an instant to rest. Thus, the heart 
works away at the rate of 100,000 beats per day. In all we might 
say that the heart works about one-third as much as the muscles. 
Of course, any one would think that after doing all this work it 
would naturally wear out, but it is a machine which constantly 
repairs itself. It is said by some authorities that in a natural life 
time it propels about a half million tons of blood. 


Regulation of Blood Flow. 


The regulation of the blood flow is controlled by the beating 
of the heart, while this in turn is more or less controlled by the 
brain. The heart action is not altogether dependent upon the 
brain, for the heart of a cat may be removed and yet will continue 
to beat, sometimes for hours. Nevertheless, the brain has the 
power of hastening or checking the heart’s action. From the 
brain to the heart runs two nerves, which might be compared to 
telegraph wires. Over these, messages are constantly going which 
control our circulation.. Yet this is done without our being aware 
of any change or without conscious violation on our part. Only 
one case has been recorded of a person who has been able to inter- 
fere with the beating of his heart. This notable exception was 
Colonel Townsend, of Dublin, who, after succeeding in stopping 
' his pulsation several times, at last lost his life while doing so. At 
the wrist, we may feel the expansion of this, the radial artery, by 
the wave of blood forced onward by the heart. At the temple, 
the same pulsation of the temporal artery may be felt. In health, 
there should be from seventy-two pulsations per minute for a 
grown man, to eighty for a woman, ninety for a child of seven, 
and one hundred twenty times for an infant. This pulsation de- 
pends upon various conditions. Excitement or inflammation may 
increase them, loss of vigor will decrease them, while nearly every 
disease modifies them so that the physician may find in them an 


28 FIRST QUARTER 


indication as to the nature of a disorder. But the regulation of 
the blood does not depend altogether upon the heart action. The 
size of the blood vessels may be so changed by the brain that mere 
or less blood will flow through. All the small arteries have small 
muscle fibres running around them. When these fibers contract, 
they narrow the opening, and lessen the amount of blood allowed 
to pass. All of these fibers are connected with the hrain or spinal 
cord, and thus the amount of blood which flows to any organ may 
be controlled. If for any reason any part of the body needs more 
blood than another, it is not always necessary for the heart to in- 
crease its action. The nerves controlling the muscles around the 
blood vessels in that particular organ may relax and thus allow a 
greater flow of blood to that part. When any part of the body 
is actively at work, it needs greater blood supply, for the blood 
carries nourishment. The more strenuous the labor we perform 
the greater the blood supply needed. After a full meal, the stom- 
ach and intestines need a large amount of blood for their work. 


Vaso Motor Nerves. 


By means of the nerves from the brain, known as the vaso 
motor nerves, the small arteries in the intestines are made to 
relax, and allow the blood to flow through them more rapidly. 
Then the walls of the stomach and intestines become filled with 
blood and digestion goes on rapidly. Blushing results from a 
similar action of the blood vessels in the face, while a pale or 
pallid skin means contracted vessels. 

When heat is applied the blood is drawn to the surface, the 
veins become congested and a rosy tint is noticeable on the skin. 
Or if nature wishes to cool us off, the blood is forced to the sur- 
face as in running and active sports, or in fever. Cold has the 
exact opposite effect. When one is cold the skin is pallid, the lips 
colorless, and the blood is held on the interior of the body. 


Effects of Chilling Body Surface. 


If the surface of the-body is chilled, the temperature of the 
body as a whole may not be changed, but the blood will be driven 


FIRST QUARTER 29 


inward, perspiration ceases, the lips become blue, the skin some- 
what numb, and the face pale. Sudden chilling of the body sur- 
face often results in cold, while extreme prolonged chilling will 
result in death. 


Trace Circuit of the Blood. 


When the capillaries empty the blood into the veins it is foul, 
and must be carried to the lungs to be purified. But ic is first 
taken to the heart where it enters the right auricle, then flows into 
the right ventricle. Then the pulmonary arterv carries it to the 
lungs. Here it is purified, and is then collected into the four pul- 
monary veins which carry it to the left auricle of the heart, fram 
where it flows into the left ventricle. From here it enters she 
great aorta, then the arteries, then the capillaries, and finally back 
to the veins where the circuit begins all over again. 


Lymph, Source, Use, Circulation. 


The lymph is a thin, colorless liquid, and almost transparent 
This lymph circulates through the lymphatics like blood circulates 
through the veins. It ‘arises from the fluid part of the blood 
which exudes from the capillaries, bathes the cells and tissues of 
the body, and, after feeding them receives their excretions, then 
passes on to enter the circulation. Some authorities describe the 
lymph as blood lacking in red corpuscles. 


Circulation of Lymph. 


The lymphatics are a set of tubes provided to take care of 
the lymph. The smallest lymphatics are much smaller than the 
smallest capillary, and their walls are so thin that it is difficult to 
see them even with a very high power microscope.’ They may be 
either on the surface or deep-seated. They are very numerous 
in almost every part of the body. They finally run into one an- 
other like little streams into a river. These finally all unite and 
empty into the thoracic duct, which is a tube about the size of a 
goose quill, in front of the spinal column. It extends upward and 
empties into a large vein on the side of the neck. For a man 
weighing about 150 pounds about six pounds of lymph is dis- 
charged. 


30 - FIRST QUARTER 


Lymphatic Glands or Nodes. 


At irregular intervals, the lymphatics open into spongy bag- 
like bodies, known as the lymphatic glands. These glands filter 
out all injurious matters to the system, while the cells of the 
glands destroy poisons. They vary in size from a wheat grain to 
a small nut. They may be felt in the neck, arm pits, and groins 
where they are often enlarged by disease. 


Respiration. 


We now see how various parts of the body are dependent 
upon one another. The skeleton serves the muscles, while the blood 
feeds the muscles. We now come to our next step or organs 
those of respiration. 


Respiration may be defined as the function whereby the im- 
pure blood is converted into pure blood. At first sight we might 
think respiration was a very simple process, but when we take 
into consideration the object and the organs concerned, we soon 
find it is a complicated process. The main, object is to bring the 
living cells and the blood in direct contact with oxygen, so that in 
the one case they may be purified and in the other that oxidation 
may take place. 


Organs of Respiration. 


The organs of respiration are nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, 
and bronchi. Add the lungs and the red corpuscles and we have 
the respiratory system. 


The Nose. 


The nose is the first and outer part of the air tube. It is a 
double tube and is lined with mucous membrane. The nose is 
joined to the skull by small bones. The nostrils are separated 
from each other by bony partitions. Each nostril has its walls 
bent into curved folds, three in number, which run lengthwise in 
such a way that each tube is almost divided into partitions. These 


FIRST QUARTER 31 


folds have a two-fold object—first, to warm the air before it en- 
ters the lungs, and second, to filter the dust and other impurities 
from the air before it gets to the lungs. The sense of smell is 
located in the nose. The nerve of smell is called the olfactory 
nerve. The fine fibers of this nerve are distributed over the up- 
per part of the mucous lining of the nose. The use of the sense 
of smell is to guide us when we select food, and also to warn us 
against bad air. 


. The Pharynx. 


The pharynx is a muscular bag behind the mouth and nose, 
and leads tothe gullet. -From the nose the air is taken to the 
back part of the mouth, called the pharynx, then through an air 
tube in the neck, and is then carried to the lungs. The pharynx 
is lined with mucous membrane and supplied with a muscular 
coat. The pharynx is really another name for the throat, and 
both food and air pass through this organ. ‘The air should always 
enter through the nose, so it may be properly warmed and 
cleansed. Just in front of the pharynx on each side is a fleshy 
body, usually about the size of an almond, and much this shape. 
These are the tonsils. Sometimes‘these bodies become diseased 
and it is necessary to have them removed. However, this should 
not be done unless it is quite necessary, for these bodies complete 
the work undertaken by the nose—that of warming the air before 
it enters the lungs. 


The Larynx, 


The larynx is a small, triangular cartilaginous box situated at 
the upper and front part of the neck. It is through this box that 
the air_passes. The larynx is really the organ of the voice because 
across its upper part are stretched two thin elastic bands, known 
as the vocal cords. These can be tightened or relaxed at will, so 
that. the air passing over them produces a-sound called the voice. 
Any one can easily locate the larynx by placing the fingers on 
either side-of the throat and then swallowing. The hard bunch 
which moves.up and down is called the larynx or “Adam’s Apple,” 
as it is commonly called. 


39 FIRST QUARTER 


The Trachea. 


The trachea or windpipe, is a tube which extends downward 
from the larynx. It is about four and a half inches long, and is 
composed of a number of rings of cartilage; they keep the trachea 
from going together. The trachea is lined with a mucous mem- 
brane. At the lower end the trachea divides into two main 
branches, called the right and left bronchi, one of which goes into 
each lung. Each of these bronchi divide into smaller tubes called 
the bronchial tubes, which pass through the lungs like the branches 
of a tree, and finally end in short pouches called air sacs. — 


The Lungs. . 4 


The lungs are the essential organs of respiration and by 
them the blood is purified and again made fit to use by man. 
They occupy the cavity in the upper part of the body below the 
neck. In spite of all their size they are very light in weight, those 
of the average person weighing about two and a half pounds. 
Because they are so light, the lungs of animals are often called 
“lights,” and will easily float in water. In children the lungs are 
of a pinkish color, while in older people they are a drab color and 
many times dotted over with black spots. A muscle called the . 
diaphragm separates the lungs from the lower organs of the body. 
The right lung is larger than the left lung and has three lobes, 
while the left lung has only two. Each lung is covered with a 
smooth, delicate membrane called the pleura. When this pleura 
becomes inflamed, it gives rise to great pain called pleurisy. The 
chest is also lined with this pleura and when we breathe the lungs 
expand and cause the inflamed pleura covering the lungs to press 
on the inflamed pleura lining the chest. The lungs will stretch 
like rubber bags when they are filled with air, and collapse when 
the air is removed. If we want good strong lungs, we should 
give them exercise for it is essential to them as any other organ 
of the body. We should form a habit of frequently drawing 
long, deep breaths, filling the lungs as full as possible, and then 
blowing out the air slowly and forcibly. “Persons who live a quiet 
indoor life especially should frequently exercise their lungs 1n this" 
way. 


FIRST QUARTER 33 


Functions of the Organs of Respiration. 


The functions of the nose are to warm and filter the air 
before it is allowed to pass on into the lungs. 

The pharynx further warms the air, while the larynx is the 
organ of speech. The trachea or windpipe conveys the air from 
the larynx to the bronchi. 

While the bronchi are composed of hoops of cartilage much 
like the trachea, their use is quite different. The bronchi not only 
carry the air, but they divide the air currents into innumerable 
- parts, and bring it in close contact with the blood in the surround- 
ing blood vessels. 

The lungs, which are composed of the.bronchi, air sacs and 
blood vessels, are the means whereby the blood gives up its car- 
bon-dioxide and receives in turn oxygen. 


Lung Capacity. 


When we breathe in all the air we possibly can, our lungs 
contain about three hundred and thirty cubic) inches of. air. 
When we exhale all the air possible from our lungs, we breathe 
out about two hundred and thirty cubic inches, or about a gallon 
of air. This leaves about two hundred cubic inches of air which 
can not be breathed out. With each inspiration about twenty cubic 
‘inches of air is taken into the lungs; you can easily see that with 
each inspiration about one-tenth of the air in the lungs is changed. 


Respiratory Movements of the Diaphragm and Chest Walls. 


Our ribs are not only covered with muscles, but are connected 
by strong muscles. They are so connected by these bands with 
the sternum in front and the spine behind that, when we inhale a 
deep breath, they are raised up toward the shoulders, the sternum 
is pressed outward, and the sides move outward. This is caused 
partly by the muscles which attach them to both sternum and 
spine, and partly by the muscles which attach them—one to an- 
other. The lower edge of each rib is in this way fastened to the 
upper edge of the one just below it. The chest cavity is also en- 


34 FIRST QUARTER 


larged, by the movements of the diaphragm. This, by contrac- 
tion, enlarges the chest downward. This diaphragm is a strong 
flat muscle, with a raised center, from the sides of which strong 
muscles pass to the walls of the chest. This diaphragm separates 
the chest from the abdomen. As the center is higher than the 
sides, any contraction of the muscles will pull the center down- 
ward, and in this way the chest capacity is enlarged. hee is just 
what happens at every inspiration. 

In ordinary, quiet breathing the diaphragm is largely used, 
about one breath to every four heart beats. Scientists have 
pointed out that the breathing of women differs from that of men, 
in that it is limited almost entirely to chest breathing, and is due 
to their different manner of. dressing. 


Chest and Abdominal Breathing. 

In studying this phase of the subject, Dr. Mays, of Phila- ° 
delphia, made some very interesting experiments among the 
native Indian girls in the Lincoln Institution. These girls had not 
yet adopted the dress of the white woman. In all he examined 
eighty-two girls, among which were thirty-three full blooded 
Indians, five one-fourth, thirty-five half Indians, and two, three- 
fourths white. Seventy-five showed a decided abdominal type of © 
breathing; three a costal type, and three in which both were about 
even. Those who showed the costal type came from the more 
civilized tribes and were partly white, while in no instance did a 
full-blooded girl possess this type of breathing. 

All of ths leads to show that the abdominal type of breathing 
is the original way of respiration, and that to the so-called civilized 
dress is due the chest breathing. 

In chest breathing, the air is driven out af but a very small 
portion of the lungs. The tiny air sacs located at the bronchi 
ends are not exhausted and inflated at each breath as they should 
be, and so furnish a ready breeding place for all pulmonary dis- 
eases. 


Changes in the Blood in the Tissues. 
We are taught that carbon dioxide is not formed in the lungs, 
but is merely given off there. We must look further back in the 


FIRST QUARTER 35 


act of respiration to determine its source. Many varied experi- 
ments have been made to show that most of the carbon dioxide is 
formed in the tissues of all parts of the body during the process 
of nutrition. Therefore, when the blood comes back from the 
tissues to the heart, it is carrying carbon dioxide instead of 
oxygen. Further experiments teach us that carbon dioxide is 
formed by the decomposition of the tissues, and then the oxygen 
is used, by them to rebuild themselves. The food which we have 
eaten supplies the carbon which passes off as carbon dioxide. It 
has been stated by reliable authorities that in a day about one and 
a half pounds of carbon dioxide is given off by the body. Some 
scientists hold that the muscle has the power of taking up oxygen 
from the haemaglobin and using it along with raw material (food) 
as furnished by the blood. This forms a contractile substance 
-and when it decomposes it sets free its potential energy. When 
the muscle is inactive, this process is gentle, but when the muscle 
is in action it becomes violent. Others hold that the change in 
the tissues partakes of a fermentive nature—that is, under the 
proper ferments, the substance breaks up into simpler products 
thus setting forth heat and force. This change is then followed 
by a second oxidation by the oxygen in the arterial blood, and in 
this case as in all putrefactive procssses, carbon dioxide and water 
are set free. However, theories on this point are many and con- 
flicting, and—simple as this process seems and is—it lies hidden 
from us within the cell. 


Effect of Respiration Upon the Blood in the Lungs, 


The blood, in its passage through the lungs, undergoes 
changes which parallel the changes of the air when it has passed 
through the lungs. The most noticeable change in the blood is 
the change in color. It enters the lungs a dark purplish, almost 
black, when it leaves the lungs it is a beautiful bright red. Chem- 
ical analysis shows that this change is due to loss of carbon di- 
oxide, and a gain of oxygen. This change is not very clearly 

understood, but: it is known to take place in the red blood cor- 
_puscles. The coloring matter of these corpuscles is haemaglobin. 
It has been discovered that when this unites with oxygen its color 


36 FIRST QUARTER 


is bright red, and dark purple when the amount of oxygen is re- 
duced. However, this does not explain much, and just where 
and how the transaction takes place, we do not know. 


Effect of Respiration Upon the Air in the Lungs. 


The air gives up its oxygen to the blood in the delicate cells 
of the lungs. If the air is examined when it enters the lungs and 
again after it has passed through the lungs, the amount will not be 
changed to any great extent but its composition will be greatly 
changed. It loses about one-fourth of its oxygen, gains about 
one-fourth carbon dioxide, gains more watery vapor, and besides 
contains a small amount of decaying animal matter. The watery 
vapor can be easily seen by breathing upon a window pane some 
cold day. We have all noticed that the air in a closed room soon 
becomes offensive when many persons remain in it for any length 
of time. This is caused by the decayed animal matter which has 
been breathed out with each breath. This is not omy disagreeable 
to smell, but poisonous to breathe. 


Digestives Organs. 


The organs of respiration furnish fresh air to the body. But 
the body requires more than air to keep it functioning. Food is 
also necessary. The organs which take care of the food we eat 
and convert it into a condition capable of being assimilated by the 
body are known as the digestive organs. 

Digestion is that process which food undergoes in order to 
be made of service to the body. 


Process of Digestion. 


The process of digestion is really two-fold. Jn the first place, 
the nutritious portions are separated from the non-nutritious, and 
then secondly, these are-made soluable, a condition in which they 
are fitted to be taken up by the blood and made of use to the body. 
This two-fold process is known as digestion and the organs which 
carry it on are known as the digestive system. The tube in which 
these changes take place is known as the alimentary canal. 


FIRST QUARTER 37 


It-is clear to all that bread and meat are both of great value 
in sustaining life, yet neither can be taken up by the blood and 
used for bodily nutrition. Each must be so ‘changed that they 
may pass through the membraneous lining which separates the 
glood vessels and other vascular bodies from the alimentary canal 
cavity. In discussing the subject of digestion, a sharp distinction 
should be drawn between that and assimilation, which will be dis- 
cussed later, but which is all too frequently confused with that 
process which food undergoes in the alimentary canal, and which 
is properly speaking digestion or the mechanical and chemical 
_ preparation of the food till it is ready for absorption and assimi- 
lation. 


Organs of Digestion. 


The organs of digestion are the mouth, stomach, intestines, 
and their related glands, which make up the alimentary canal. 


The Mouth. 


The mouth is the first organ entering into the process of 
digestion. Here the food is reduced to a fine condition and mixed 
with saliva. The grinding is done by the teeth, which, in the 
adult, are thirty-two in number. This grinding process has two 
elements of value—the food is reduced to a condition in which it 
is more easily swallowed, and makes it more easily mixed with 
the various digestive juices which are to act upon it. If we think 
how much more easily powdered sugar is dissolved than loaf 
sugar, we see how much more readily the food is sent to the stom- 
ach in a fine state will be digested. Prompt digestion of food is 
very necessary for if held in the digestive tract too long it may 
ferment and serious disturbances of the digestive tract ensue. 
For this reason, if for no other, it is highly important that our 
teeth are in good condition. 


The Stomach. 


The stomach is the second organ of digestion. When the 
food leaves the mouth it passes down .a narrow tube, the esopha- 
gus, into the stomach. The esophagus consists of a tube with 


38 FIRST QUARTER 


muscular walls, lined by mucus membrane. The opening be- 
tween the esophagus and stomach is known as the Cardiac aper- 
ture, while that from the stomach into the intestines is known as 
the pylorus or gate keeper. 

The muscular coat of the stomach is made up of two layers—» 
an outer longitudinal and an inner circular layer. The mucus 
membrane with which the stomach is lined is loosely attached to 
the muscular coat by a fibrous connective tissue. This is known | 
as the submucus coat and contains the nerves, blood vessels and 
lymphatics that supply the mucus membrane. This mucus mem- 
brane is made up of innumerable small glands, packed side by 
side, and opening into the inner surface of the stomach. 

After the food leaves the mouth, it is forced into the stomach 
through the esophagus; then from the stomach it enters the in- 
testines through the pylorus. 


The Intestines. 


The third principal organ of digestion are the intestines. The 
intestines form one long tube and are divided into the large and 
small intestines. 

The large intestine is much shorter than the small, but is so 
called because of its greater diameter. That part of the small 
intestine—about ten inches in length—which is immediately con- 
nected with the stomach is known as the duodenum. The rest 
of the small intestine 'is known as the jejunum and the ileum. 
The transition from the small to the large intestine is sudden, and 
to prevent food from being forced back into the small intestine 
by the action in the large intestine, there is a sort of lipped valve 
known as the ileo-caecal valve. | 

The large intestine is really divided into five parts, known 
as the calcum, the part which joins the large and small intestines, 
the ascending colon, that part which turns upward toward the 
stomach, the transverse colon, which carries it across to the left 
side of the body, then the descending colon, which carries it down 
to the rectum, which is part of the colon or large intestine which 
opens externally. The structure of the intestines is in the main 
much like that of the stomach—containing mucus and muscular 
coats, and like the stomach, is enveloped in peritoneum, 


FIRST QUARTER 39 


Alimentary Canal, Parts, Structure, and Movements. 


The alimentary canal consists of the mouth, gullet, stomach, 
large and small intestines, ending in the rectum. 

When a piece of bread is put into the mouth, it is caught by 
the teeth and tongue and chewed. It is then mixed with the 
saliva, and forced down the gullet, a strong tube, which by con- 
tractions and expansions carry the food into the stomach. This 
power of the food tube extends throughout its length. It is car- 
ried out by a series of circular rings of muscles bound together 
by other threads of muscles running lengthwise and all forming 
the muscular coat of the tube. By their contraction they squeeze 
the food along its way. 

The stomach is a pear shaped enlargement of the canal, 
where certain juices are poured upon the food. The stomach is 
fitted with an especially delicate lining. It is comopsed of tiny 
living cells laid side by side like the bricks in a wall. These cells 
pick up and use all substances they need for ferments, acids, or 
alkalies. This same structure called the mucus membrane con- 
tinues throughout the food tract with slight variation. From the 
stomach, the food passes to the small intestines, then into the large 
and finally the waste is expelled. 


Glands; Location; Secretions. 


While the first part of digestion—the mere mechanical part— 
is carried on by the muscular movements of the various organs, 
the chemical part is brought about by the action of minute organs 
or glands located at various points along the digestive tract. 

The first set of glands which pour their contents upon the 
food are the salivary glands, which act upon the food in the 
mouth. ‘These glands are divided into the parotid, submaxillary, 
and sublingual glands according to their location. The parotid 
glands are just in front of each ear, and the ducts leading from 
them pass along the cheek until it is opposite the second upper 
grinding tooth. The submaxillary and sublingual glands lie be- 
tween the lower jaw and the floor of the mouth. The sublingual 
lie nearer the front than the submaxillary. Their ducts which 
open into the mouth lie just below the tip of the tongue. The 


40) FIRST QUARTER 


secretion of these glands is called saliva. ‘This fluid is clear, con- 
taining about 99 parts water and 1 part solid matter. It it is 
estimated that the amount secreted by an adult is about one quart 
every twenty-four hours. Up until recently, the importance of 
the action of the saliva on the food eaten was overestimated and 
scientists now are prone to regard its action more mechanical 
than chemical since it reduces the food to a condition in which it 
is more easily swallowed. Its main chemical reaction is caused 
by a peculiar substance known as ptyalin, which acts upon the 
starches in the food changing them to sugar. However, much 
of the starch we eat is not changed into sugar until acted upon 
by the pan¢reatic juice in the intestines. 


7 


The gastric juice is the next juice that is poured upon the - 
food. This takes place in the stomach. The mucus membrane 
lining of the stomach consists of a multitude of small glands, 
packed closely side by side. When food is taken into the stom- 
ach, the small arteries of the stomach begin to dilate, more blood 
is sent to them and it is from this increased blood supply that 
the minute glands of the stomach take the material they require 
for their excretion. The secretion thus formed is the gastric 
juice. Pure gastric juice is a clean acid fluid, largely water with 
an acidity due to hydrochloric acid to the extent of 4%. In ad- 
dition, a small quantity of pepsin is held in solution. Proteims are 
the special foods acted upon by the gastric juice; the resulting 
juice formed is much the same and is known as peptone. This 
differs from all other proteins in that it is extremely soluble, and 
does not become coagulated by boiling as does the white of eggs 
and other forms of proteins. As far as we know, gastric juice 
has no chemical action on fats; its action on them being purely 
mechanical in that it breaks up the fibers enclosing them, thus 
rendering them more easily acted upon by other juices. Gastric 
juice has no direct action on the carbohydrates, other than that 
while the food is held in the stomach and surrounded by the 
gastric secretions, the saliva with which the food was mixed in 
the mouth has a chance to act upon the starches present and to 
change them into sugars. When the food has been passed on 
into the intestines, it meets several fluids, which are poured out 


? 


FIRST QUARTER 41 


upon it. The bile which is secreted by the liver, and the pancreatic 
juice secreted by the pancreas are the two chief digestive juices 
of this region. 

The pancreas is a flat narrow organ about six inches long, 
lying behind the stomach. It tapers to the left and ends above 
the left kidney. It has been compared in shape to a dog’s tongue, 
and at its broadest end, like the root of the tongue, it bends down- 
ward. Here the duct leading from it begins and joins the bile 
duct just before it empties into the duodenum. In intestinal 
structure, it is much like the salivary glands. The amount of 
digestion performed in the small intestines is greater than in any 
other part of the canal and much of this work is done by the 
pancreas, one of the most powerful and active of all the glands. 
The amount of pancreatic juice secreted varies with the kind of 
food eaten. It is about 87.5% water and 12.5% solid matter. 

While undoubtedly the main object of the pancreas is to 
secrete digestive juices, it has other important uses as yet not 
very well understood. If the pancreas is removed from an ani- 
_ mal, a great amount of sugar appears in the urine and the animal 
soon dies. This in human beings is known as diabetes. 

The bile is secreted by the liver and 1s one of the very import- 
ant digestive juices. The liver is the largest gland in the body. 
It weights 314 pounds and is a reddish brown color. With 
the exception of the under surface, where the various vessels of 
the liver make their exit, the surface of this organ is very smooth 
and even. It is located in the right side and extends a little below 
the ribs. The bile duct as it leaves the liver gives off a side branch 
to the gall bladder. This is a little dark green sac, where the bile 
is stored until it is needed for digestion. 

The liver has three duties to perform—its secretion of bile 
being but one of them. It may serve as a storehouse for digested 
food where it ts held till needed. It ts also an excretory organ. 
As the blood passes through the liver, poisons in it are eliminated 
either by way of the bile duct and alimentary canal or by way of 
the kidneys and blood vessels. 

The amount of bile secreted is irregular and like the gastric 
juice seems to depend upon the kind and quantity of food eaten. 
It is a golden yellow liquid, alkaline and bitter. It varies in com- 


42 FIRST QUARTER 


position from 82 to 96.5% water and 18 to 3.5% solids. Its color 
is due to the presence of a pigment, bilirubin. It also holds in 
solution certain salts of sodium known as bilé salts. Its value 
seems to be twofold—to emulsify the fats, and to keep the bowels 
sweet and free from putrification. Its action on the fats merely 
serves to break up the fat globules into smaller bits, hence making 
an emulsion of them, in which form they are more readily ab- 
sorbed or acted upon by the pancreatic juice. 


In addition to the juices already mentioned, there are certain 
intestinal juices secreted by small glands in the walls of the im- 
testines. These appear to be very important factors in digestion, 
but as yet scientists have not agreed upon their.action, some main- 
taining their action merely supplements the action of the’ other 
digestive juices, while others hold thew action entirely independent 
and separate. 


Processes of Digeston; In the Mouth, Stomach and 
Intestines. 


As the processes of digestion have been so fully treated in 
the former topics, it seems necessary to give but a brief account 
of them here. | 


When food is taken into the mouth, it is chewed and mixed 
with saliva, whose only action is to a limited extent upon the 
starches which are changed to sugar. The next step in digestion 
takes place in the stomach where the gastric juice is poured out 
upon the softened mass. Here the proteins are rendered soluable, | 
and the whole reduced to a milky-like mass called the chyme. The 
next step takes place in the intestines where the pancreatic juice— 
with threefold action—handles starches, porteins and fats and 
where the remaining fats are further emulsied by the action of | 
the bile. By the time the mass has reached the large intestine, it 
is much drier and more compact, possessing a disagreeable odor 
and containing refuse, germs and such food substances as have for 
some reason or other not been acted upon by any of the digestive 
juices. | 


FIRST QUARTER 43 


Absorption. 


Absorption is really the sequel of the digestive process. A 
little of the water with some soluble salts and sugar were absorbed 
directly in the mouth by the blood vessels. Poisonous substance 
may be absorbed the same way, as Prussic acid, for instance. A 
few drops placed upon the tongue will cause almost instant death, 
while none of it may have reached the stomach. But the absorp- 
tion in the mouth is very little compared to that which takes place 
in the small intestine. In the stomach, a slight absorption may 
take place of a portion of the proteids digested there. Some of 
the starch changed into sugar by the action of the salivary glands 
may also be absorbed here. But like the digestion, most of the 
absorption takes place in the small intestines. The process by 
which the liquefied food passes from the alimentary canal in to 
the blood is known as absorption. This is accomplished in two 
ways—first by the blood vesels and second by the lacteals. 

The inner membrane of the digestive tract is lined with a 
minute network of blood vesels, which absorb or take up certain 
of the food elements. The absorbing surface of the intestines if 
measured as a plane would measure about one-half a square yard. 
The mucus membrane is formed in folds which have multitudes | 
of tiny projections called villa, which greatly increase its absorb- 
ing capacity. During digestion, they dip into the liquefied food 
and by means of their blood vessels, absorb its contents just as 
the rootlets of a plant absorb moisture. 


Lacteals are the second means of absorption. Lacteals are 
a set of vessels found only in the small intestines. They have 
their origin in the villi, side by side with the blood vessels. While 
these two sets of absorbers run in different directions, their desti- 
nation is for both, the right side of the heart. The lacteals receive 
their name from their milky white contents and all unite to form 
one tube—the thoracic duct. The lacteals are but one of a class 
of absorbents known as lymphatics. The fluid which circulates 
through the lymphatics not concerned in digestion is clear like 
water and is known as lymph. This is the watery part of the 
blood not needed by the tissues, and is being returned to the blood 
by the lymphatics or absorbents. 


44 FIRST QUARTER 


Assimilation. 


Assimilation means the use of nutrients after digestion to the 
maintenance of the vital functions and to the upbuilding and re- 
pair of flesh and bone. These processes take place in the tissues, 
where the nutritive substances are carried by the blood. It is the 
capillaries that this exchange takes place, and here each tissue 
selects from lifeless material that which it needs and changes them 
into. substances like themselves. This conversion of lifeless ma- 
terial into living tissue—as yet imperfectly understood—is known 
as assimilation. During sleep, seems to be the most favorable 
time for this to take place, for then the circulation is regular and 
slower, and the other functions have ceased. 


FIRST QUARTER 45 


' WORK FOR THE 
SECOND, THIRD AND FOURTH QUARTERS. 


With our study of the digestive organs, we have completed 
the review of the various parts of the body. In our second 
quarter we will study bacteria and disease germs, the third quarter 
being given over to general sanitation, while-the fourth quarter 
will be a resume of the year’s work special attention being given 
to foods and the five special senses—hearing, sight, smell, touch, 
and taste. 


Let us now see how the world around us affects us and our 
bodies. 


Note to the teacher—Each teacher must use her own judg- 
ment as to the amount of tune she gives the above review. If 
the general facts of bodily structure are known, together with 
the parts and their functions little tume need be given this. Then 
the rest of the quarter should be given special attention. It is sug- 
gested that 1t be handled from the project standpoint—each child 
making a booklet in which he copies material or pastes pictures 
upon the chosen subject. One may choose the subject, “Our 
Common Housefly,” another may take the “Mosquito and its Re- 
lation to Health.’ Another may choose the “Cockroach.” Others 
may take the subject of “House Pests and How they Spread 
Contagion.” Have all the subjects relating to agents which 
spread disease. This prepares the way for the more detailed 
study of bacteria in the next quarter. 


It seems well to here discuss in detail two of the chief car- 
riers of disease—the fly and mosquito. Each may carry disease 
germs but in a different way. The fly transfers them by the hairs 
of his legs, while the mosquito harbors within her own body—the 
female alone is a blood sucker—hence is the one that carries 
malaria germs—the germs of the disease we know as malaria. 


46 FIRST QUARTER 


Tuberculosis and typhoid fever are perhaps the ones most | 
liable to be communicated by the fly. This is because the germs 
of these two diseases are cast out from the body of the sick person 
—the tuberculosis germs in the spitum and the typhoid in the 
excrement from the bowels. If we ever have noticed the dis- 
gusting habit of flies crawling over such filth then alighting on a 
person’s face, hands, or even on uncovered food, we readily see 
how the little pest may be the source of grave danger. No one 
would stay long in a house full of rattle snakes, yet they will sit 
unconcerned in a room full of flies, while one is frequently as 
dangerous as the other. 

It has been only in recent years that there was seen to be a 
relation to such insects as flies and mosquitos and human health. 
People became ill, and various causes were assigned. . The tuber- 
cular patient caught cold, the malaria victim slept in the damp 
night air, the typhoid case ate two many fresh vegetables, while 
the sufferer from a cold got his feet wet or had sat in a draft. 

The practice of curing diseases by one method or another is 
as old as the history of the world. In 400 B. C. Hippocrates, the 
“Father of Medicine,” put forth the idea that disease was caused 
by a wrong adjustment of the humors of the body. Later, in the 
eighteenth and ninteenth centuries, various physicial and chemical 
theories of disease arose. But not till 1863 during the Civil War 
was it demonstrated that the disease was caused by planting in a 
healthy body a particular kind of micro-organism. More than — 
one hundred years before, this theory had been proposed, but no 
proof had been made. In 1683, Leewenholes, a Dutch lens 
maker, made a lens so powerful that he could see living things in 
scrapings from the mouth. Lenses were improved until 1786 a 
classification of bacteria was made according to their form. But 
it was 74 years later before the discovery was made that there was 
any connection between these living forms and diseases. 

In 1860, Pasteur and Tyndall discovered it was these germs 
found in the air that caused decay. In 1863, came the discovery 
that anthrax in cattle was caused by these living particles, which 
they called bacteria. In 1882, Robert Koch first used gelatin as 
as the means of cultivating and studying bacteria. These culture 
media made it possible during the last of the nineteenth century 


FIRST QUARTER 47 


to separate and study bacteria. This study resulted in finding 
that specific organisms cause specific diseases. We now have 
certain proof that such diseases as whooping cough, typhoid fever, 
scarlet fever, and other kindred diseases are caused by the trans- 
fer from the body of a sick person or from some breeding ground 
to the body of another person certain disease germs. 


_ To prevent the spread of diseases caused by micro-organisms, 
three things must be learned. How these germs get out of the 
sick body; how long they live and under what conditions, and how 
they are carried to another body and how they enter tt. 


Among the most common of communicable diseases are 
_tonsilitis, diphtheria, colds of all kinds, typhoid, tuberculosis, 
diarrhoea, hydrophobia, boils, sores, abcesses, blood poisoning, 
pneumonia, whooping cough, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, small 
pox, malaria and probably rheumatism. 


A clear distinction should be made between bacteria and pro- 
tozoa. The former are vegetable micro-organisms while the lat- 
ter are animal micro-organisms. Bacteria are not all of a danger- 
ous sort by any means. Indeed they accomplish much good for 
us. They are especially useful in converting dead organic matter 
into soluable food for plants. Many cause fermentation and give 
us sour milk, kraut, vinegar, the taste to various cheeses, to butter, 
and to many other foods we enjoy. However some bacteria are 
harmful, and cause diseases. From your study of Agriculture 
what can you tell of bacteria and the clover crop uniting their 
efforts to build up worn out soil? 


Protozoa are usually too tiny to be seen by the naked eye— 
usually consisting of but one cell. Many live in water, others are 
parasitic and cause special diseases as the malaria protozoa. They 
are usually divided into: 


1. Rhizopoda. 
2. Mastigophora. 
3. Sporozoa. 
4 


Infusoria. 


48 FIRST QUARTER 


Life History of Malaria Parasite and Other Protozoan -* 
Disease. 


In 1880, Laveran, a French army surgeon, stationed in 
Algeria, found in the blood of patients suffering with malaria, 
an organism now known as Plasmodium Malariae. This organ- 
ism burrowed into the red corpuscles of the blood and there went 
to work. At periods of twenty-four hours it ripened a crop of 
spores, then burst out of the corpuscles and scattering through 
the blood and tissues of the body, caused the well known par- 
oxysms attending malaria chill. If quinine is administered just 
before the spores ripen, it either kills them or prevents their spor- 
ulation. 

This discovery was a new departure in science, in that it 
prover that the organisms which caused malaria were animal 
rather than vegetable. All the disease germs hitherto discovered 
had been of the vegetable kind. This was an enormous step in 
advance in that it paved the way for the discovery that a whole 
class of animal parasites cause numerous infectious diseases. 

Among the most common of these diseases are: Texas fever « 
in cattle, dourine in horses, the tsetse fly disease, the dreaded 
sleeping sickness, and perhaps small pox. The fact now seemed 
clear that it must be conveyed to a human body through the body 
of some other animal. Since insects are the only animals that ~ 
bite human beings with enough regularity and frequency to cause 
infection, search was made among this group of animals. 

In 1895, Dr. Renald Ross, of the Indian Medical Service, 
discovered and positively identified the plasmodium undergoing 
a cycle in its development in the body of a mosquito. Experi- 
ments were made on animals, but no infection followed the mo- 
squito’s bite, hence it was clear that the experiment must be tried 
on human beings. Volunteers were called for and in ten days 
eight-tenths of the victims bitten developed the disease. Not all 
mosquitos were found to be malaria carriers, only the Anopheles, 
and of these only the female. This is true because the female is 
the only one that bites and sucks blood. The way that malaria is 
transmitted is for a mosquito to bite a person suffering with ma-— 
laria. This innoculates the mosquito which in turn innoculates 
the person it bites. 


FIRST QUARTER 49 


To get rid of malaria, then the first step is to get rid of mo- 
squitos. This is not the impossible task it seems. Mosquitos 
have definite breeding places, and if these are destroyed the pest 
is destroyed. One good way to clear a pond of mosquitos is to 
stock it with small fish which feed upon the larvae or “the 
wiggle tails” as they are popularly called, and hence prevent their 
developing into mosquitos. Another way is to pour coal oil over 
small pools and puddles. This prevents the hatching of the mo- 
squitos. Drain pipes, gutters, rain barrels, tin can dumps, and all 
such places should be inspected regularly to see that there is no 
stagnant water that may harbor the pests. 


When the United States attempted to complete the Panama 
Canal, the first thing they did was to rid the zone of mosquitos 
for malaria had been the great foe of the French in their effort to 
put through the great undertaking. In waging this war on the in- 
sects, the health commissioners found out many interesting facts. 
One was that mosquitos never flew against the wind, and if the 
wind was blowing from the bank of the river on which they were 
camped, they could sleep without netting or other protection. 
Another discovery was that only the female was a blood sucker. 
And not all females were malaria bearing. If a mosquito alights 
on the back of your hand watch it for amoment. If the back 
of the insect is parallel with your hand it is of the genus Culex 
and is not a malaria bearing insect, but if the body is at an angle 
with the surface of your hand, the head lower than the body, then 
it is of the genius Anopheles and may give you malaria, if it has 
bitten some one else who had malaria. 


In late years when there is little waste, undrained land, ma- 
laria is much less common than during the early days of the 
state. 


Another enemy of man and one charged with a long list of 
crimes against human health is the common.house fly. Unlike 
the mosquito the house fly cannot bite, hence can not convey 
disease in the way the mosquito does. Flies walk upon filth then 
crawl over food. Especially are flies dangerous around dairy 
barns, for germs deposited in warm milk breed and increase at an 
alarming rate. These when examined under the miscrope have 


50 FIRST QUARTER 


been found to carry millions of germs on their bodies. As their 
legs and feet and body are covered with tiny hairs, the germs and 
filth readily adher to them, and are as readily left on whatever 
they alight upon. 

Physicians charge the fly with carrying typhoid fever, 
diarrhoea, dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, small pox, and an- 
thrax. Some doctors add poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis) but 
others dispute this, saying too little is as yet known about the dis- 
ease to make any statement definite. 

Perhaps knowing something about how flies develop and 
where they breed may make it easier for us to know how to com- 
bat them. 


There are four stages in the life cycle of a fly. First there is 
the egg period, then the egg hatches into the larva, commonly 
called a maggot.This develops into an inactive stage called pupa, 
which in turn develops into the fly as we commonly know it. 
This cycle depends in length on various conditions, the chief 
factor being a warm, moist temperature. The average period is 
10 to 12 days—while the lowest is about 8, and in cold weather, 
the longest period may stretch into weeks. 

The eggs of a fly are long and cylindrical shamed! They are 
from four to five hundredths of an inch long, and slightly smaller 
at one end that at the other. They are usually laid in masses 
of about 120, and under favorable condition will hatch in about 
24 hours into maggots. \ 

The maggots are transparent objects when first hatched but 
later become opaque and cream colored. They live in this state 
from four to five days, the time depending largely upon the food 
supply. When ready to pass itno the pupa stage, the contract 
within their skin, and become dormant. This stage lasts four to 
five days sometimes less, but under unfavorable circumstances 
as during the cold of winter may continue several months. When 
the fly emerges from the pupa stage, it first dries its wings, 
stretches its legs, and is ready to begin the life cycle all over again. 


The average female fly lays two sometimes four sets of eggs. 
Then when we figure that there are from seven to fourteen gener- 


FIRST QUARTER 51 


ations each season, we can readily see how fast they multiply. 
One fly may have several millions of descendants by the close of 
the year. 

The question then comes. How to get rid of them? The 
way is simple—keep everything clean and there will be no flies. 
Keep the farm clean, keep houses, yards and barns clean, and the 
fly will disappear like snow in August. There are three chief 
breeding places for flies—manure piles, open water closets, and 
garbage pails. The first two are primarily the sin of the country, 
while the latter may be. 

New York has so largely settled her fly problem that few 
homes bother with screens. There are practically no barns, garb- 
age is collected in closed wagons every day. All water closets are 
inclosed—the result is a nearly a flyless city. 

Manure is the favorite breeding place of flies. Around barns 
it is especially dangerous for often the milking is done there. 

Many attempts have been made to secure some simple effec- 
tive way whereby manure piles will cease to be the breeding places 
of flies. Various compounds have been tried but as manure is 
one of the most valuable fertilizers, some method must be used 
that will not impair its usefulness. Another thing must be con- 
sidered. Because of chickens and other fowls which have access 
to the refuse, no poisonous chemical is safe to use. Powdered 
helebore is now considered the most satisfactory agent. The 
helebore is made into a solution of one-half pound of powder to 
ten gallons of water. This is stirred and allowed to stand for 
twenty-four hours. For every 1% cubic feet of maiure 1% 
gallon of the solution should be sprinkled over the manure. 

Borax was found very effective in destroying the maggots, 
but proved harmful to plant life, if the manure was used later as 
a fertilizer. | 

A mixture containing one-half pound of calcium cyanide and 
one-half pound of acid phosphate added to each bushel of manure 
proved very destructive to the maggots, and also was valuable in 
that it added nitrogen and phosphorus to the land over which the 
manure was spread. Many other solutions have been tried out 
by the government but have proven either ineffective, poisonous, 
or two expensive for constant use. 


52 FIRST QUARTER i 


But we must not expect the farmer to do all the fly fighting. 
Every city house wife should be responsible for her own home, 
back yard, and especially her garbage pail. There are many pails 
on the market that are fly proof. Others have fiy traps in the lid 
that catch and keep all flies from the pail. A dirty housekeeper 
will always have a garbage pail swarming with flies. Not long 
ago a dainty little housewife boasted she could carry her daily 
garbage to the opera in her hand bag and no one would be any 
wiser. An examination of her garbage pail bore out her state- 
ment. It was a galvanized can, with tight fitting lid, painted in- 
side and out with several coats of white paint. Each day the pail 
was lined with a clean newspaper, and the garbage placed on this. 
Nothing but dry garbage went into the pail. The rest was sent 
down the kitchen drain, then followed by hot water and some 
strong washing powder. This little housekeeper had no fly prob- 
lem—since she left nothing out’ to attract them, the flies went 
where food and shelter was more abundant. 


Fly traps are easily made. In many cities the boy scouts 
have taken it upon themselves to make and, supply traps to ali 
who will use them. In a school where manual training is taught, 
the making of these traps may prove a most interesting bit of 
work. Many states as well as the United States issue bulletins 
describing how such traps are made and may be had free if writ- 
ten for by a student. 


Besides the fly and mosquito there are many other bugs, in- 
sects and small animals that are hostile to the well being of man. 
These have been treated more fully under science and agriculture 
than they can be here. Among them are the various kinds of 
ants, roaches, gnats, fleas, lice, bed bugs, rats and mice. Like 
flies, these pests are most effectively combated by complete clean- 
liness. 


When we come to another division of animal life hostile to 
man, the situation is different. In this class we find the various 
worms, bugs, beetles, aphids, flies, and other insects which prey 
upon food intended for human consumption. Every garden, or- 
chard and timber tract will yield its quota of insects seeking to 


FIRST QUARTER 53 


devour the plants we find there. These pests have been treated 
fully in the first quarter of the science and argriculture and the 
student is referred to the work as given there. 

In the same quarter we found that not all insects were in- 
jurious. Some animals as the bee and silk worm have great com- 
mercial value. Japan’s position among the great powers is due 
largely to her vast hords of silk worms that produce the finest 
cocoons in the world. 

Among the beneficial insects also we must include the lady 
bug, or lady bird beetles, dragon flies, ets. These prey upon dan- 
gerous insects and help man in his fight to eradicate them. 

Each child should famalarize himself with these beneficial 
insects so that he may spare them whenever and wherever he can. 


Man’s Dependence Upon Small Things. 


While man stands at the head of the animal kingdom he bv 
no means is independent of the lower members of his kingdom or 
even the vegetable kingdom. He is dependent upon both for his 
food and shelter, and anything which threatens either, interferes 
with his well being. -Likewise is he dependent upon these king- 
doms for his health and happiness. We have seen how bacteria 
and protozoa are almost everywhere. Some are beneficial ,some 
—as far as is known—are neutral in their activity to man—others 
are frankly dangerous enemies. 

Our next quarter will be taken up with the more scientific 
study of bacteria, where they breed, how they cause disease 
how they are scattered, and various diseases which they cause. 
The third quarter is given over to sanitation and the combatting 
of disease. | 


54 SECOND QUARTER 


SECOND QUARTER. 


DISEASE GERMS. 
Bacteria, Size, Form, Rapidity of Multiplication. 

Bacteria—At the present time there is much study and dis- 
cussion about bacteria. While there is much that we can not 
understand, for sanitary reasons it is worth while investigating 
the subject. | 

The word bacteria comes from a Greek word meaning “little 
sticks”. It is difficult for us to think of bacteria as little sticks 
when they are so tiny, but that gives us the original meaning of 
the word. Bacteria, in reality, are very small one-celled plants 
and can be seen only through a microscope. Notice they are 
plants rather than animals. We can not escape bacteria for they 
are all around us—in the air, the soil and the water and are also 
found in living animals and plants. Fortunately many of them 
are harmless and go their own way and leave us alone. There are 
some, however, that we do fear and they are called disease germs. 
We cannot get away from them but only hope to prove stronger 
than they. Scientists know of over 1500 different kinds of bac- 
teria but only about seventy grow in our bodies and cause disease. 

Size—It is almost impossible for us to imagine the size of 
bacteria. They are the smallest living things. Some are so 
small that they can not be seen even with a microscope. It is 
said that thousands of them could find standing room on the point 
of a needle. Some are not more than 1/500,000 of an inch in 
diameter, if we can imagine such a measurement. A drop of 
water would make a swimming pool for an endless number. 

Shape—Bacteria differ greatly in shape. .Some are round 
like a ball, some slender rods, and others of spiral shape. They 
appear to be colorless sacs made of a clear substance, with no ap- 
pearance of root, stem, or leaf as you usually see in plants. 

Rapidity of Multiplication—Bacteria multiply very rapidly 
and sometimes a single bacteria in the morning will have millions 
of decendents by evening if they are not hindered. 


SECOND QUARTER 55 


There is a center to each germ. Under favorable living con- 
ditions the germ lengthens out and breaks into halves, and each 
half becomes another germ. As these grow they continue to 
divide into two, sometimes as frequently as once in twenty min- 
utes.. Two or three generations may be formed in an hour. 
They do not develop as rapidly as this at all times as conditions 
are not always favorable for their growth, but you can see the 
possibility of the development. 


Spore Formation. Their Importance. 

Certain bacteria, in reproduction, come to be known as 
spores. They are not as active in production as other bacteria, 
and some, known as sleeping spores, do not develop for a long 
time. 

Bacteria are reproduced by a cell becoming longer until it 
finally divides into two new cells which go on dividing. Some- 
times there is an irregular cell division and spores are formed. 
They differ from the regular bacteria in various ways. Most 
bacteria must have favorable conditions such as food, heat, and 
moisture to live but spores live under most unfavorable condi- 
tions. Spores often times stay in the body of their parents but are 
not really a part of the parent. When they are given off ‘they 
soon become cloudy and a covering appears. In a short time the 
spore is enclosed within.a heavy wall. This remains as it is for 
an indefinite time when conditions become favorable and it then 
produces a cell like the one which formed it. 

Bacteria which produce spores are much harder to kill than 
others. When bread molds, the tiny black specks that appear on 
the top of the bread are spores. They are light and easily blown 
about and when they fall on a place favorable for their growth, 
they increase. 


Disease Germs, With But Few Exceptions, Do Not Produce 
Resistant Spores. 


Disease germs, for the most part, do not produce spores. If 
they did, our chances for living would be much less hopeful than 


56 SECOND QUARTER 

at the present time. Spores offer such great resistance and live 
such a long time before developing, that if they caused. disease, 
we would have much to fear from them. 

There is a disease, called Anthrox that is caused by these 
bacterial spores. It is found among both men and animals, but 
more frequently among animals, and sometimes causes death to 
many in a very short time. If the body of an animal that had the 
disease is allowed to decay, many of these spores are formed that 
can lie for a long time and then when they are taken into the 
body of another animal, begin‘at once to grow. 

This shows us the danger if spores were common among dis- 
ease germs. 


Useful Bacteria, Such as Those That Produce Vinegar, Kraut, 
Sour Milk. 


Bacteria is both useful and harmful. We are apt to spend - 
most of our time and thought on the harmful kind and forget, 
that as in most things, there is some good to be found. Bacteria 
if not bothered, destroys all dead things. If it were not for this, . 
there would be an endless accumulation of undestroyed waste 
matter about us. From the largest tree that falls to the smallest 
animal that dies, the bacteria cause decay and thus disposes of 
the tree or animal and enriches the earth. There are some plants 
that require food which is supplied only by bacteria in the soil. 

Bacteria is also useful in food. It is true that it causes 
much food to spoil and become unfit for use but on the other 
hand, it adds to the taste of some food. Souring is a bacterial 
process. We cannot easily make butter from sweet cream. The 
bacteria sours it and then it can be churned. It is found that 
certain kinds of bacteria in the fat add to the flavor of the butter. 
Cheese depends for its taste and odor upon bacteria and mould. 
Some kinds of the stronger cheeses are placed in moist cellars to 
allow this bacteria to grow. Limburger is allowed to go through 
this process for four or five weeks and comes out with the not- 
to-be-forgotten odor. A 

Fruit juices will ferment, through the influence of bacteria 
and then turn to vinegar. The “Mother of Vinegar” is just a 


SECOND QUARTER 


~J 


on 


mass of bacteria. A similar fermentation process causes 
shredded cabbage to become sauer kraut. 

We can see the value of bacteria in foods as the butter, 
cheese, vinegar, etc., could not be produced without them and 
these foods, especially butter and cheese are wholesome, nourish- 
ing foods. 

It is interesting to note that freshly churned butter contains 
a large number of bacteria. The next day it contains only about 
half as many and each day the number decreases. 


Harmful Bacteria Such as the Disease Types and the Kinds that 
Destroy Foods. 

It is interesting to study the uses of bacteria in producing 
butter, vinegar, cheese, etc., but probably if that were the only 
use, we would not know much about bacteria for it is the evil 
that it does that causes men to study into the subject that we may 
be able to combat its destructive work. 

The two general classes of harmful bacteria are those that 
cause disease and those that destroy food. 

As was said before there is a very small-proportion of bac- 
teria that cause disease and we are rejoiced at that, but those that 
.do cause disease are much to be dreaded. 

There are two kinds of bacteria, those which derive food 
from decaying animal or vegetable matter and those which inhabit 
another organism. . The latter are called parasites. Nearly all 
bacteria which produce disease are parasites. We usually call 
them disease germs. Germs cause disease by entering the body 
and producing a poison or toxin and these poisons, given off by 
the germs, cause the disease. So we may say that germs cause 
disease indirectly. We used to have the idea that diseases were 
inherited but since germs were discovered we know that what is 
inherited is the weakness of the body to kill the germs that enter 
our bodies. 


Bacteria that Destroy Food. 
If it were not for this bacteria, food would keep indefinitely 
without change. We can’t get away from these little plants and 
when food is left unprotected, bacteria begin work at once. We 


58 SECOND QUARTER 


have discussed the way food can be preserved but it is not possible 
to preserve all kinds. We can do much towards keeping food, | 
_ however, by being sure our hands are clean when handling 
it and by having it in clean surroundings. 


Bacteria and the Teeth. ; 

Regular habits should be formed in the care of our ‘bodies 
but probably there is no regular habit that is of greater advantage, 
from the health standpoint, than the habit of brushing our teeth 
regularly. For two very good reasons, we should brush our teeth 
the first thing in the morning and the last thing at night—for 
comfort and for health. Once we have formed the habit of 
keeping our teeth clean, if we neglect them, we can fairly feel,a 
coat of film on them. ' 

A very good breeding place for bacteria is teeth that have 
not been brushed and are decaying. When we eat, particles of 
food get between the teeth. These particles stay until they are 
removed. Bread and crackers and other starchy foods are bad 
about lodging in the teeth. Bacteria begins to work on these par- 
ticles at once. The’ particles turn sour and an acid forms which 
causes the teeth to decay. The process is similar to the souring 
of milk. This acid acts on the teeth at once. It is difficult for 
the acid to act on the hard part of the teeth and it takes time but 
if there is a cracked or broken place in the teeth, it is much easier 
for the acid to do its harmful work. 

Material from decayed teeth or from pus cavaties around the 
roots, may cause serious trouble. 

If the teeth are properly cared for, the good health of the 
body will be greatly increased and on the other hand if the body 
is kept in good condition, the teeth benefit from it. 

Knowing that bacteria will thrive in the moist warm food 
left between the teeth, we can easily see that the good care of the 
teeth is most essential. 


Agents That Kill Bacteria. Open Flame, Hot Water, Sunlight, 
Long Drying, Chemical Disinfectants. 


While bacteria is all around us and we are not able to get 
rid of them, there are agents such as open flame, hot water, sun- 


SECOND QUARTER 59 


~ light, long drying, and chemical disinfectants that do destroy 
them. We will discuss each of these agents briefly: 

Open Flame.—Bacteria are particular in that they adapt 
themselves to conditions around them. Each kind seems to have 
its favorable temperature in which it grows best. None are 
capable of withstanding extreme heat. For this reason the open 
flame or fire is useful in extremely contageous diseases. Every- 
‘thing used by the patient that.can, should be burned, and in the 
case of such diseases as tuberculosis, paper napkins can be used 
and burned so there is no chance for the spread of the disease 

Peerins; | 

Hot Water—When a person is sick with a contageous dis- 
ease, his dishes should be washed in boiling water. All bedding 
should be washed thoroughly and some disinfectant used in the 
water. The bedding should then be allowed to hang in the sun- 
light for some time to make sure it is perfectly free from germs. 
Hot water and soap are now used to a great extent where chemi- 
cals formerly were used. 

_ Another important use of hot water is with dishes that have 
been used for foods that were spoiling. These dishes should be 
thoroughly scalded with hot water before using again. 

Sunlight.—Direct sunlight is the most powerful known agent 
in killing bacteria. It kills the bacteria which cause many of the 
diseases of man. In the sun light are those ultra-violet rays 
which kill bacteria as soon as they fall on it. Wecan realize how 
powerful these rays are if we hang a colored dress on the clothes 
line directly in the sun. If the dyes are not especially good, it is 
but a matter of a short time until most of the color has left the 
dress. 3 

People, in ordinary health, need this sunshine. If you have 
been housed up for a while because of rainy weather and the sun 
comes out and you take a long walk, you come in feeling much 
better. People whose work keeps them in the house most of the 
time would be in much better health if they could get out into the 
sunlight for a few minutes each day. If our houses are built so 
we can admit plenty of fresh air and sunlight, we have gone a 
long way towards good health. 


60 SECOND QUARTER 


Long Drying.—Water is so essential to the growth of bac- 
teria that if it is taken away, vital processes cease. In part of the 
country where it is very hot and dry in the middle of the day, 
meat is hung up in strips and allowed to dry. Germs are present 
in the meat at first, but the germs are unable to work when there 
is lack of moisture and so much heat, and in a short time the meat 
is preserved from them. This drying reduces the bulk of the 
meat because the water is taken out but it also preserves it so . 
it will keep, which is a great necessity especially if ice can not be 
had. . 

Milk, fruit, meat, and vegetables can be preserved in this — 
way, but the work must be done in hot germ free air. 

Chemical Disinfectants—Chemical disinfectants are used 
widely but are the ones that require the most caution. Sometimes 
chemicals are used to preserve foods as milk and canned goods, 
but as a rule if the chemical is strong enough to preserve the food 
and kill the bacteria, it is not a good addition to food. Many 
times we use soap, water, fresh air and sunlight in a sick room 
where formerly we felt we must use chemicals. In some cases 
such as smallpox and infantile paralysis, chemical fumigation 1s 
necessary. 


Antiseptics Simply Prevent Bacteria From Developing and the 
Same is True of Such Preservatives as Salt, Sugar, 
and Vinegar. 


An antiseptic is anything which destroys the germs of disease 
or restricts their growth. These are used where there is the 
danger of too much bacteria being developed. All cuts, even small 
ones, should be treated with an antiseptic to prevent infection. 

In another way salt, sugar and vinegar preserve food from 
being destroyed by bacteria. 

Salt has a great attraction for water. We can easily under- 
stand this when we attempt to get salt from the salt shaker in 
damp weather. Bacteria contains little salt and a great amount ~ 
of water. When the bacteria are placed in salt, the salt tends to 
draw the water through the walls of the bacterial cell. There isa 
slow passage of salt into the cell and as a result the bacteria 


’ 


SECOND QUARTER 61 


simply dries up and is extinguished. Strong sugar solutions are 
even more powerful in drawing water from bacteria. Honey re- 
sists these microbes almost indefinitely. Years ago it was found 
that sugar, added to fruits, helped to preserve them and today we 
add it to our preserves and if properly cared for they keep in- 
definitely. 

Vinegar destroys the germs in food and so we find salt, 
sugar, and vinegar three good preservatives. 

In order to preserve food, the bacteria must be destroyed 
and the food protected from other bacteria. 


Resistance of Spores As Compared With the Actively Growing 
Forms of Bacteria. 


Bacteria cannot make their own food, but get nourishment 
from foods that are ready made such as milk, meat, fruit, vege- 
tables, etc. As is stated above, bacteria must have the right food, 
heat and moisture to live and produce other bacteria. When con- 
ditions are favorable they multiply rapidly but when food is scarce 
these cells do not divide to form new ones but many of them de- 
velop spores in themselves and when the bacteria die, the spores 
are set free. There is enough of the vital substance of the germ 
in the spore so that life is just maintained. A dense membrane 
is formed around it and the fact that there is very little moisture 
contained in it, increases its resistance. Spores can resist drying, 
chemicals, intense heat and all disinfectants. Under circum- 
stances when bacteria would die, spores live on. It would be 
most disastrous to us if spores were disease germs for with their 
great resistance, disease would be spread in every direction. 


Eighth Grade Pupils Should Understand these Organisms. 


The eighth grade pupil should have a simple, yet definite, 
idea of the real nature of these organisms. 

Eighth grade pupils are not old enough to take up a technical 
study of bacteria and profit by the work but they are old enough 
to have a simple yet definite idea of the real nature of these or- 
ganisms. They should know what bacteria are, what they do 


é 


62 SECOND QUARTER 


and the difference between the harmful and the useful types of 
bacteria. The eighth grade pupil should know that while there 
are many bacteria that are harmless, there are a few that we call 
disease germs that we must guard against. 


Study of Bacteria Through the Microscope. 


If a compound microscope can be borrowed, it will add to the 
interest and value of this work for the pupils to see bacteria as 
they appear in some decaying substance such as broth or stagnant 
water. 

In much of our work in the study of science, we find that 
apparatus is absolutely necessary. We may read about things 
that can be done in laboratories but that means so little to us many 
times. If we can actually see experiments worked out, we under- 
stand so much more about them. A compound microscope is 
not an instrument that can be had in every school but if one could 
be borrowed it would add much to the interest and value of the 
work in the study of bacteria. We can show the pupils a small 
bowl of stagnant water and tell them that there are thousands of 
bacteria in it. It would take a rather vivid imagination to picture 
these bacteria to their minds but if they could actually see the 
bacteria through the microscope, it would make a deep impression 
upon their minds. 

We could show the pupils a piece of moldy bread and explain 
the different stages of bacteria development but if they could 
actually see the bacteria, the whole process would be real to them. 
We are all familiar with the simple microscope or magnifying 
glass as we call it. A compound microscope works on the same 
principle but has more than one lens and is much more complex 
and powerful. A mirror is used to reflect the light and very tiny 
specks can be seen through it. 

Experimental work could be made both interesting and valu- 
able if a compound microscope could be used in the study of 
bacteria. 


Experiments Are Worth While. 


. 


Simple experiments are suggested. A few will be given that - 


could easily be used with the pupils. 


SECOND QUARTER 63 


Experiment to show the growth of bacteria: In this experi- 
ment be sure that all the dishes have been boiled. Boil a potato 
and with a sterilized knife and fork, lift it from the kettle, cut in 
halves and place on two saucers. Place over one half a tumbler 
but before covering the other half of the potato with a tumbler, 
place a drop of drinking water on it. Allow the two to stand 
and watch for the bacteria development on the potato with the 
drop of water. 

An experiment to test the cleanliness of milk. Heat a pint 
of milk in a double boiler. Dissolve a junket tablet in a table- 
spoon of warm water and add to the milk when the milk is heated 
to body temperature. Thoroughly mix the milk and junket tablet 
and then let it stand until thick. Pour off all whey and when the 
curd is compact, cut it with a knife. If the milk used does not 
contain many bacteria, the curd will be smooth and rather solid, 
but if it is spongy then many bacteria are present. Take a table- 
spoonful of the curd and place it in water. If the milk is fairly 
clean it will sink but if it floats, the milk is not fit to be used. 

An interesting experiment to show that it is not easy to 
detect filth in milk, is to put a quart of milk in a glass jar. Put 
into this a tumbler of thin mud and stir it. The mud does not 
change the appearance of the milk. 

Put several thicknesses of paper in a saucer. Wet them and 
put on them a slice of bread. Scatter over the bread some dust, 
cover with a saucer and set away. Keep the bread moist and see 
the condition of it in a week’s time. 


Germs Other Than Bacteria, Such as Those That Cause Malaria. 


Bacteria are one-celled plants and protozoa are one-celled 
animals—all are visible only through the microscope. We have 
just been studying bacteria and go to the study of protozoa be- 
cause they are the germs that cause malaria. One rather inter- 
esting thing in connection with the two is that, for the most part, 
drugs are used effectively in diseases caused by protozoa while 
in the case of bacteria, our own body tissues have more force in 
destroying them than drugs do. 


64 SECOND QUARTER 


In malaria, the germs live in the red corpuscles of the blood 
and are from what we call the malaria mosquito. 

This malaria mosquito is different from our ordinary mo- 
squito. It never travels far but clings to the weeds and grasses 
near where it hatches. ‘The mosquito has a long snout which it 
inserts into the skin of people and sucks out the blood. As the 
red corpuscles of the blood are too large for the mosquito, it 1n- 
jects its saliva into the blood to break up these corpuscles. As it 
does this it injects the malaria germs into the person. This germ 
goes right to the red corpuscles and begins to grow. These germs 
grow very rapidly. They destroy red corpuscles and begin work 
on the internal organs, and in a short time the patient begins to 
chill. Malaria is a disease which takes one’s strength. It rarely 
causes death but just keeps people sick. Many times people are 
just sick enough so they can work but not do as much as usual. 
However, malaria shortens people’s lives because’ the germs give 
off poisons which wear out the organs of the body, sooner than 
they otherwise would. 

These microbes in malaria are in the blood of the person and 
so can be spread only by the mosquito so that the essential thing © 
is to do away with the mosquito. To do away with the mosquito 
is to do away with all breeding places. We must not allow pools 
of stagnant water to remain. A tiny puddle of water is sufficient 
for the female mosquito to lay her eggs and mosquitos develop 
rapidly. The mosquito lives in the water but it must come to the 
surface for air. If kerosene is put on the pool of stagnant water, 
is shuts off the breathing places, and the mosquito dies. 

People who live in districts where malaria is common should 
be sure their houses are carefully screened and that the breeding 
places of the mosquito are destroyed. Then the danger from the 
disease is not very great. 


Parasites. 


Parasites, as tapeworms, trichina worms, and _ intestinal 
worms that may gain entrance to the intestines through poorly 
cooked meats or from surface water cause disease. 


SECOND QUARTER 65 


The protozoa which cause malaria also cause worms. All 
meats contain disease germs. Pork especially may contain worms 
called trichinal and the intestinal parasites. Both beef and pork 
may contain tape worm. If meat containing these germs is not 
cooked, these animals get into the body but thorough cooking 
makes the meat safe. ; 

Tape worms fasten to the walls of the intestines and live 
there, growing on the food meant for the person until they become 
long worms, shaped like tape. The young trichinal make their 
way through the walls of the intestines and enter the blood. The 
blood carries them to the muscle cells where they work their way 
in and destroy the cells. 

Animals to be killed for meat are usually inspected but there 
are always dangers and the safest way is to be sure the meat we 
serve our families is thoroughly cooked and it is wise not, to serve 
it too frequently. , 

While these germs do not grow very much in fruits and 
vegetables, they may get on them so the safe way is to wash all of 
the fruits and vegetables thoroughly. 


How Germs Cause Disease—Growth of Germs in the Body. 


Now that it has been definitely decided that germs cause dis- 
ease, we are interested in learning how germs cause disease. 
While germs are everywhere around us, we know that we are 
safe so long as they stay on the outside. Only when they’ are 
taken into the body, are they dangerous to us. From the stand- 
point of good health, we should know something of their growth 
in the body. There are various ways in which they may enter 
but usually through the mouth or nose; through cuts or breaks in 
the skin, through drinking water or milk that is not pure, through 
food that contains germs or by mosquitos or flies which carry 
these disease germs to the body. 

Germs do not provide their own food but have a way of get- 
ting food from their surroundings, so that when they enter the 
body, they at once find suitable food and grow and multiply. 


Some of the germs, however, are not able to withstand the acid 


66 SECOND QUARTER 


of the stomach or other germ poisons in various parts of our 
bodies. They die and can cause no more harm, but others do 
withstand these poisons and make their way through the body. 
Many pass into the alimentary canal, which is sometimes called — 
a microbe incubator, and here they are produced in great numbers. 
It is easy to understand why they are so numerous here. This 
alimentary canal is about thirty feet long. The food, warmth and 
moisture in it make it an ideal place for the growth of microbes 
and hence the great number. We know that they are there and 
that while they probably do no great harm, they do no good and 
yet we are helpless when the question comes up as to how to get 
rid of them. This is one of the many problems left for science 
to solve. 


Formation of Poisons. (Toxins). Effect of These Poisons. 


Disease germs enter the body and live on their surroundings, 
and in return for this, they give off a poison, toxin, as it is called. 
We know little or nothing about the chemical structure of these 
toxins but we do know that they are formed inside the cell of the 
bacteria, are given off freely by the cell, and that they cause des- 
truction wherever they go. They may destroy the tissues sur- 
rounding them or they may get into the blood and be carried 
though the whole body, destroying the tissues of any part of the 
body. In some cases the nerves absorb them.and tetanus or lock- 
jaw results. In some diseases such as diphtheria, the toxin seems 
to poison different parts of the body. There will be the regula- 
tion sore throat of the disease, but there may be also complica- 
tions of liver, changes in the circulatory organs, drop in blood | 
pressure, and other troubles which show that the toxin is working 
in many parts of the body.: 

Another danger is that these disease germs multiply greatly, 
before the body sets up its defense and gets ready to fight them. 
Then when these bacteria are killed, poison from them is carried 
_ through the body. 

The only way to avoid this poison, is to keep as free of the 
disease germs that give them forth as possible and build up a 
good healthy vigorous body that will be able to combat them if 
they enter the body. 


SECOND QUARTER 67 


On can readily see the effect of these poisons on the body. 
They irritate or destroy the body tissues and unless they are 
overcome in some way, finally destroy the body. 


How the Body Resists Bacteria and Their Poisons. 


To a certain extent the healthy body may resist these bacteria 
and their poisons. The process is an interesting one. 

These bacteria are not a part of the human body and come 
in as sort of intruders. Their object is to reach the tissues of the 
body to begin their destructive work. Our bodies seem to realize 
their presence though we know nothing about it. It seems as 
though the entire body gets ready to fight the disease germs. Let 
us suppose that a tuberculosis germ enters through the mouth be- 
cause of close contact with one who has the disease. The germs 
first go to the stomach. In our stomachs is an acid that kills 


many bacteria but some of them escape this and go on to the small 


intestines. The intestinal walls are strong and the germs gener- 
ally cannot force them but sometimes the walls are not strong 
enough to resist the disease germs; they give way and the germ 
poisons get into the tissues. In the tissues, the blood exerts its 
power in killing the microbe. The white corpuscles of the blood 
are perhaps the greatest factor in killing bacteria of any of the 
body resistants. Sometimes the germs are too much for these 
white corpuscles and they in turn are killed by the germ. Other 
parts of the body aid in fighting these germs but if none are suc- 
cessful then the disease is free to begin its work, but you can 
readily see that if all these organs are in good working order, the 
poor germ doesn’t have a very good chance. 

When the germ has withstood all these bodily organs, and 
actually entered the tissues of some part of the body it begins its 
»work and the germs multiply rapidly. It probably feels then that 
the way is clear for its destructive work but before it gets a very 
good start, substances seems to come forth created just to meet 
the need. These germicidal substances, as they are called, assist 
the white corpsucles. They fight during the disease and after- 
wards remain in the body a long time, and when they are there, 
we can not have that same disease again. In case of the measles, 


68 . SECOND QUARTER 


scarlet fever and small pox, we seldom have them again because 
of this substance which seems to say “‘you’ve been in this body 
once, that’s enough”’. 


Antitoxins and Related Substances in the Blood; Tell ie 
Truth in Simple Language. 


Our bodies do such wonderful things that we marvel at them. 
One of the most astonishing is the forming of anti-toxins. As 
the microbes enter our bodies and give forth their poison, the or- 
gan attacked reacts by forming a counter poison. One strange 
thing about this counter poison is that it has no effect against any 
other microbe except the one that called it into being. This anti- 
toxin formed by typhoid bacteria will be absolutely tiseless in 
fighting against lockjaw germs. 

We now have standardised antitoxin for diseases. It. is 
given to people to prevent disease or lessen the seriousness of the 
disease. 

Antitoxin means “against poison”. In disease the person 
may not be able to produce enough, so if some antitoxin is added 
to his blood, he may be better able to combat the disease. 

In explaining the relation of disease germs to the body and 
showing how the body reacts from these germs, we must take 
into consideration the age of our pupils. We must be sure that 
we give absolute facts but the truth should be stated in simple 
language and made as practical as possible if the pupils are to 
benefit from it. 


White Corpuscles and their Use; Pus. 


White corpuscles are called the police force of the blood. 
They do not unite in groups as most cells but float one by one in 
the blood. This gives them free sway and they go around seem- 
ing to watch for chances to attack the disease germs. 

Disease germs would have a free and easy time if it were not 
for these white corpuscles in the blood. One thing they do is to 
eat these disease germs. Sometimes the white corpuscles can not 


SECOND QUARTER . 69 


digest them and the germs in turn kill the corpuscles. If this 
goes on the patient can not live but if the corpuscles can digest 
the germs, his chances for recovery are good. 

Pus is largely white corpuscles that have collected and have 
destroyed bacteria in the tissues. 

The white corpuscles of the body have been likened to a 
police force. Each corpuscle goes around watching for disease 
germs. When he finds one he arrests it. He does this by eating 
the germ. If he is not able to do this, he calls other corpuscles 
to help him. If you get a splinter in your finger, these white cor- 
puscles rush to the scene and die in making the attack. We say 
the splinter festered and came out but what really happened was 
these white corpuscles made an attack when the splinter entered 
and they were killed in the attack and their bodies: formed the pus. 


Healthy Resistant Body Best Safeguard. 


A healthy resistant body is the best safegurad against disease. 
The best of us get diseases but we can escape disease: more easily 
if we are well and strong, and if we are so unfortunate as to 
catch a disease, we are better able to combat it if we have a strong 
constitution to begin with. We can inherit a weak or a strong 
body but fortunately we can acquire a strong body if we have the 
determination to do it. We should learn the rules of right living 
and adhere to them and should not violate the laws of health. 
Exposure, exhaustion, lack of good food, bad air in sleeping 
rooms, and lack of sufficient exercise will weaken our bodies 
and then the disease germs get in their work. 

No matter how strong we are, if too many disease germs 
get into our bodies, we cannot combat them so we should avoid 
contact with people who have contageous diseases. 

Sometimes we feel the situation is hopeless with these tiny 
germs all around us, but the best thing to do is to avoid people 
who are sick, keep up your general health and not worry about 
germs. 

There are about a million and a half deaths in this country 
each year. Probably half of these are needless. In addition to 
this there are about three million persons who are constantly 
sick, 


70 SECOND QUARTER 


Sickness causes much loss of time as well as discomfort. 
We should strive to have good strong bodies so we can resist 
disease. 


a 


Catching Diseases; Germs Must Escape from the Patient. 


Our ideas about catching diseases have changed considerably 
in recent years. Science does much toward explaining conditions 
and yet we understand so little about this body of ours. We think 
we know how to care for it, yet there is so much to learn. 


Certain germs cause certain diseases and these germs must 
come from the parent germ; they cannot start from nothing. 

In the person who has a disease are many disease germs, but 
so long as these stay in the person, other people are safe but when 
the germs are given out, the danger comes. If a person were 
careful he could avoid giving off these germs to a certain extent 
though he does not have full control of this. 


There are Various ways in which germs may escape the 
patient, such as coughing, sneezing, spitting, sores on the skin, 
and from the wastes of the patient. These will be discussed 
briefly : 

Coughing—lIn some of our health pamphlets we see a picture 
of a man coughing and the germs, which unfortunately, we can 
not see in real life, are pictured flying in all directions. You see 
a teacher stand before her school and cough. All of the children 
in her part of the room are exposed to her cold by her careless- 
ness. If little children could be taught that they should cover 
their mouths when they cough, after they are grown, they would 
do it unconsciously and in that one way at least, germs would not 
be carried. Se 

Sneezing—Probably sneezing and coughing should.come un- 
der the same heading for the results are so similar. The secre- 
tions of the mouth, nose and throat, scattered by coughing, sneez- 
ing and spitting are very dangerous. 7 

Spitting—Of the coughing, sneezing and spitting, spitting is 
by far the filthiest habit. While it is unlawful in most communi- 
ties, nevertheless, it is done a great deal. Especially is this dan- 


SECOND QUARTER 71 


gerous in tuberculosis. There is danger in spitting on the side- 
walk, in the grass, or in a cuspidor containing no disinfectant. It 
is a bad habit, even among the well and should be discouraged. 

Sores on the Skin—So many people are careless when they 
have small sores or breaking out on the skin. It seems such a 
little thing to the person, but from that sore may come germs that 
go to another person and cause serious infection. 

From wastes of the patient—In some diseases the germs are 
in the intestines as well as in the blood and tissues. This is the 
case in such a disease as typhoid, and in this disease, the microbes 
are in the bowel movements of the patient. A person gets typhoid 
by getting into his mouth germs which have come from some one 
who has had typhoid. These may come by the means of flies or 
polluted water from wells where these microbes have been washed 


In. 


Good health habits, both by the one who has the disease and 
those exposed to it, have much to do with keeping the disease from 
spreading. 


Germs Must Be Carried in Some Way. 


We have just learned that disease germs must escape from 
the patient in order to spread and now we come to the question of 
the carrying of germs from one person to another. As a rule 
germs do not go distances themselves but are carried to a person 
in various ways such as, in our water or food, by flies, through 
the use of the common drinking cup, by contact with persons who 
have a disease, and by dirty hands and nails. A brief discussion 
of these different ways will follow: 

In water—Impure water contains disease germs. Knowing 
this, we should see to it that the water we drink is reasonably 
pure and free from these germs. Our drinking water for the 
most part, comes from streams or wells. If the stream has been 
used as a general dumping ground, the water is impure and 
should go through some kind of a purifying process. If the 
water comes from a well, we should see to it that the well is not 
near a cess pool or a barn yard or any place where impurities 
might seep in. The entrance to the well should be carefully 
covered. 


72 SECOND QUARTER 


In Food—F¥ood that is not fresh will probably contain dis- 
ease germs. Care should be taken that our fruit and vegetables 
are not beginning to decay, that our meats have been inspected, 
that our milk is pure and sweet and that our other food has come 
from a sanitary grocery store where it has been carefully handled 
and kept clean. | 

Flies—Flies are called the “universal enemy of man’. A 
few years ago flies were taken for granted. We thought we had to 
have them; that they were a part of the coming of summer. Now 
we campaign against them for as we study flies and realize the 
great danger in having them around, we feel we must do all we 
can to eradicate them. Flies spread disease by carrying germs. 
They hover over any filthy place where germs are countless and 
then fly into our houses, walk over our food and into our milk and 
leave germs. Flies have been examined and found to have mil- 
lions of germs on them. Their feet and legs are covered with 
tiny hairs to which the germs adhere. Unfortunately we cannot 
see these germs. If we could, we would fear a fly laden with 
germs as we might a poisonous snake. 

Flies carry germs of nearly all diseases and everything 
should be done to destroy them. 

If people could be made to realize the danger in one small 
fly, they would kill it at once and thus help to lessen the number. 

Drinking cups—It seems only a few years ago that we had 
the common drinking cup. We could go into a rural school 
where there were thirty children present. If it were in the win- 
ter probably half of them would have colds. All would drink 
from that one tin dipper in the pail of water on one of the 
benches. Now we have the paper drinking cups and the drinking 
fountains. Anyone who has disease germs, and most of us have 
more or less, drinking from a cup may very easily leave germs in 
the cup that the next person may take in. Even healthy people 
give off disease germs and they may enter the body of one less 
healthy and cause any amount of trouble. 

The common drinking cup is a great spreader of disease and 
should be abolished entirely. 

By Contact—Not all diseases are contageous but many of 
them are more or less so and if we come in contact with people 


SECOND QUARTER 73 


who are sick, we may take the disease. In the case of our most 
contageous diseases, the patient is quarantined and people are 
kept away from him. That eliminates much danger but in less 
contagious diseases, the danger is really greater. We are more 
careless in these less contagious diseases and the patient is more 
careless so that we come in contact with him, get his germs, and 
are in great danger of getting his disease. 

There is danger in contact with the patient or by coming in 
contact with the things he has used. 

Dirty hands and nails—It is necessary that we keep our 
hands and nails clean. We should have enough pride to keep 
them clean for the sake of appearance but a more important 
reason is to avoid the spread of disease germs. Some one has 
gone so far as to make the statement that dirty hands probably 
cause more disease than any other agent. That may seem a little 
strong but there is doubtless considerable truth to it. Our first 
thought is that we should teach children to keep their hands clean. 
So we should; but children are not the only ones who have dirty 
hands. 

Just watch farmers and see how many of them wash their 
hands thoroughly before milking.They should, and some do. The 
housewife should always wash her hands when she goes into the 
kitchen to prepare a meal. You will probably find the average 
housewife more particular about this than the average farmer: 
but how essential for both to have clean hands! 

Children should be taught to always wash their hands before 
eating. They probably will insist that their hands look clean and 
perhaps they do but the last thing a child should do before eating 
is to give his hands a thorough washing. Children should also be 
taught to wash their hands when they have been places where 
there are crowds of people, as on the street car, or in crowded 
stores. The children touch things that others touch and have a 
very good chance of collecting dangerous germs. 

You meet many people on the street with nails that indicate 
absolutely no attention. After a study of germs you surely can 
realize the great number of germs that could lie in that small 
space under the nails. 


74 SECOND QUARTER 


Germs Must Gain Entrance to the Body Tissues of the Second 
Individual; Prevention. 


Disease germs in themselves are dangerous and many times 
they break down our vital resistance and pave the way for more 
serious diseases. There is no danger, however, unless disease 
germs are carried from those who are sick to those who are well. 
Germs must gain entrance to the body tissues of the second in- 
dividual. This may be done in several ways: Through the 
mouth and nose, the digestive tract and through open cuts and the 
like. 


Through the mouth and nose—We take in many disease 
germs through the mouth and nose. The air we breathe is never 
pure and the food we eat and the water we drink are never abso- 
lutely free from impurities. We may go up to a desk, pick up a 
pencil and unconsciously put it to our mouth. We do not know 
who has handled that pencil before us and what kind of germs. 
are on it. If some one who has a cold coughs near us, we can so 
easily breathe germs from his cold. It is easy in many ways 
to take in disease germs through the mouth and nose. 


Through the digestive tract—Impure milk and impure water 
contain disease germs. Different diseases. can be carried to the’ 
digestive tract through these agents. Suppose a family has ty- 
phoid fever and the empty milk bottles from their home have not 
been thoroughly sterilized. Milk from these bottles can easily 
carry typhoid to anyone who drinks it. 


Food that is beginning to decay contains bacteria and can be 
easily carried to the digestive tract. Any food we eat that is not 
pure is dangerous and should be avoided. 


Through open cuts or sores—As soon as there is a break in 
the skin, there is danger of infection. Germs are all around us. 
They live in our skin, on our clothing and in water. If there is 
an open cut or sore, unless it is cared for at once, these germs 
can get into it and infection may set in and trouble may follow. 


Prevention is so much easier and better than cure. If people 
could only be taught good health habits and learn to avoid other 


SECOND QUARTER 75 


people who have diseases, be careful of the food and water used, 
become enemies of flies and keep their hands and nails clean, they 
would go a long ways towards preventing disease. 


Precaution in the Sick Room. 


» Great’ pr ecaution should be taken i in the sick room to prevent 
the spread of disease. 

The dishes used should be kept for the person who has the 
disease and not be used by others. These dishes should be washed 
in boiling water. 

If the disease is one of the more serious of the contageous 
diseases, the clothing the patient uses during illness should be 
burned or at least carefully fumigated. The bedding should be 
washed thoroughly and some disinfectant used in the water. The 
bedding should be allowed to hang in the sunlight for some time 
to make sure it is perfectly free from germs. 

The wastes of the body should be carefully destroyed. This 
is especially necessary in typhoid fever but is a safe precaution in 
any disease. 

The patient should be carefully isolated during illness. To 
what extent he should be kept entirely away from people depends 
on the nature of his disease but it is usually better for both 
patient and others if there is little going to and from the sick 
room. 

The nurse should be careful of her clothing as she could so 
easily carry disease from her patient to those outside the room. 
However, nurses’ uniforms are of such material and style that 
they do not easily carry disease germs. 


How Germs Are Scattered—Human Carriers—A Perfectly 
' Healthy Individual May Harbor and Scatter Dis- 
ease Germs—This Fact Extremely Important. 


Disease germs may be carried in water and in food but 
human carriers of disease are more to be feared than any other. 
They are more difficult to avoid. We can be reasonably sure 
that the water we drink is not contaminated though water abso- 


76 SECOND QUARTER 


lutely free of germs might be difficult to find. We can see to it 
that the food we eat is clean and fresh and well prepared but if 
we mingle with people at all we can hardly avoid human carriers 
of disease. We may walk along the street and meet a person with 
a cold who takes occasion to cough or sneeze just as he reaches ~ 
us. While out of doors is the safest place, we may get these 
disease germs he has given forth even then and in spite of our- 
selves. If we go into a store, we meet people who are not well 
and are giving out disease germs into the air and on the food we 
buy. If we go into a meeting where the room is crowded, there 
may be one person, though doubtless there are more, who give off 
disease germs that may contaminate the whole room. The most 
dangerous thing we could do would be to go into a room where 
some one is ill with a contageous disease. Anything we touch 
might be covered with these germs. You can readily see that 
these human carriers of disease are all around us, scattering dis- 
ease in every direction, and try as hard as we may, we can hardly 
hope to escape all of them, 


As we study about the many ways diseases may be scattered, 
we almost feel that we are not safe anywhere. As a rule we do 
feel safe with a healthy person, while we are safer with him than 
with one who is sick, even the healthy one may harbor and scatter 
disease germs. 


Suppose a healthy man has been drinking water contaminated 
with typhoid germs. He takes these germs into his body, but be- 
cause he has a healthy resistant body, he can battle with them and 
does not get typhoid. The acid in his stomach kills some and 
others are killed by the white corpuscles in the blood, but some 
live and are given off and these may enter the body of some one 
who cannot resist them and cause him to have typhoid. So we 
see even the healthiest people may give disease germs to other 
people. : 


We need to realize the danger of disease that are all around 
us. When we know that even a healthy person may scatter 
disease germs, we should build up good, strong, healthy bodies to 
resist all diseases. 


SECOND QUARTER 77 


Importance of Direct Contact in Epidemics. 


When there are epidemics, the safest way to protect the pub- 
lic is by quarantine. Houses are placarded in two ways. If the 
disease is of a serious nature, such as scarlet fever or diphtheria, 
the placard means that people are not to go back and forth from 
the house. If the disease is of a less serious nature, such as 
whooping cough or mumps, the placard is simply a warning to 
people and they may use their own judgment about going in. 

While disease germs may be carried by a third person, direct 
contact with the person who has the disease is most to be feared. 
The person who is sick may give off germs or germs may be on 
any object in the room that the patient has touched. When we 
know that a person has a contageous disease, we are wise if we 
keep entirely away and have no direct contact with him. 


Relate This Fact to the Crowds in Picture Shows, Churches, 
and Schools Where Catching Diseases are Prevalent. 


Sometimes when there is an epidemic of some contageous 
disease, it is of such a serious nature that schools and churches 
and other public places are closed. This is done, however, only 
in extreme cases. Asa rule people are left free to attend picture 
shows, churches and schools and these are the very places where 
disase is spread. 

Supose a person is coming down with diphtheria and goes to 
a picture show. Asa rule the room is crowded and the air bad. 
Think of the people sitting around this one who is taking the dis- 
ease. Germs are given forth into the poorly ventilated room and 
the chances are that a number will come down with diphtheria. 

Suppose a child goes to school in the morning and by noon 
the teacher discovers that he is coming down with measles. In 
his school work he has probably moved around in the different 
parts of the room, and has played with children at recess. There 
is hardly a child in school who has not been exposed to the 
measles. The condition is the same at any public place. In case 
of an epidemic, the less we go to these places, the less likely we 
are to get the disease. 


78 SECCND QUARTER 


Emphasize Habits of Cleanliness, Thoughtfulness, Self-Control, 
Helpfulness to Others, and Honesty. 

Habits of Cleanliness—There is more truth than fiction in 
the old saying that cleanliness is next to godliness. In this study 
of germs, there is probably no greater factor in the destruction 
of or freedom from germs than cleanliness. There are so many 
little ways in which we can be careful about our food. It should 
be kept covered and in a sanitary place and handled only with 
clean hands. 

Cleanliness of our bodies is a wonderful germ preventative 
and clean hands are so important at all times. At best our hands 
touch things that are covered with microbes and when they are 
not clean, conditions are much worse. They should be washed 
frequently and kept away from the face. 

Thoughtfulness—The healthy individual should be thought- 
ful in preventing disease. He should be careful of his bodily 
habits, aid in protecting others from disease and keep away from 
places infested with disease germs. 

It is even more necessary for sick persons to be thoughtful. 
When they go among others, they spread disease. People with 
diseases such as tuberculosis should be thoughtful and avoid 
coughing or spitting in public places. 

Self Control—Self control is a valuable asset in times of ill- 
ness, and especially so in epidemics. It is valuable to those who 
are ill, for, fear on the part of a patient, often lessens his chances 
of recovery; it is valuable to those who are not ill for, if people 
are sensible about things and use self control in times of danger, 
it lessens the danger. 

Helpfulness to others—The paragraph on thoughtfulness 
would fit in nicely here in that thoughtfulness is being helpful to 
others. So many people around us seem to have so little idea 
about taking care of themselves. They expose themselves to bad 
weather, poor food, and sick people. If we could only make them 
realize the great dangers, we would be helping them much. 

Honesty—Honesty may be a rather peculiar topic to speak of 
in connection with disease germs, but it has a direct bearing on the 
subject. There are people around us who have diseases—know 


SECOND QUARTER 79 


they have them—but are not honest enough to admit it. In the 
opposite extreme we have the people who are ill, or at least think 
they are, who make their illness the main topic of conversation. 
As we sometimes say, they enjoy bad health. We do not com- 
mend these people for their honesty, if we may call it such but we 
do commend those who have diseases that are carried by germs 
who let us know about it so we may not be exposed to them. 


Compoition Subjects. 


Each of these composition subjects will be discussed briefly 
and the students may enlarge on them. 

Clean Hands and Health.—This is an important subject. In 
these days of running water and good soaps, washing our hands 
should be a pleasure. Whether it is to the average school child, 
_ may be determined by an examination of his hands. We don’t 
expect a child to keep his hands clean all the time when he is 
playing or working at school, but we do expect him to start with 
them clean in the morning and have them clean at meal time. 
Any grade teacher can tell to what extent this is done. The sooner 
we can make a child feel pride in clean hands and nice looking 
nails, the sooner we have accomplished something worth while in 
fighting disease germs. Especially with small children, is it diffi- 
cult to explain much about disease germs, but we should begin as 
soon as we can and make children realize what clean hands mean. 

It is said that millions of germs are in the dirt under the finger 
nails. Think of the danger when those fingers are put into the 
mouth. In this connection comes a very bad habit some people 
have of biting the finger nails. This is a bad habit first of all 
because of the appearance of it and then it ruins the finger nails 
and last of all because when we do it, we are just eating germs. 

Clean hands and health are closely allied and one depends much 
upon the other. The teacher herself should set a good example 
and have clean hands and well kept nails. 

Protection of Food from House Flies——There are some 
things we take for granted. In times past the fly was one of those 
plagues that was taken for granted. A few years ago germs were 
not known, but since we have learned about them, we find that 


80 SECOND QUARTER 


the house fly is a great carrier of germs, and knowing this, we | 


have set about to destroy the fly. As one of our health bulletin 
says: “Remember, no filth, no flies.’ This is true in that flies 


like filthy places, and carry their germs from those places to our 


homes. 

Cooking and Disease Germs.—For the most part we cook our 
foods but many fruits and some vegetables are eaten raw. These 
raw foods are good for us but are more dangerous than cooked 
foods for they contain more bacteria. However, if they are care- 
fully washed, they are comparatively safe. 

Cooking foods kills the bacteria and makes them safer for 
us to eat. Meats especially should be cooked as they often con- 
tain parasites that are harmful to us. 

Human Carriers of Disease-—This subject has bee discussed 
in the first part of this topic “How Germs are Scattered.” 


Typical Diseases. 


As suggested in the course of study, the following diseases 
will be discussed: Tuberculosis, Typhoid, Diphtheria, Smallpox, 
Colds, and Infections of Open Sores and Cuts. 

The important points to be covered in the treatment of these 
diseases are: 

The nature of the disease 

The effect upon the body 

The way in which the germs enter the body 

Their location in the body 

How they leave the patient 

How they are carried 

Precautions to be observed about the sick room. 

In some cases the prevention and curative treatments for the 
disease. 


Tuberculosis. 


Tuberculosis sometimes called the Great White Plague, is a 
much dreaded disease and until recent years a rather hopeless one 


a 


IN REGARD TO THESE PHYSIOLOGIES 


I am truly very, very sorry to have kept you waiting so long; for these 
books but the Course of Study was not ready until August 1, and after that 
date, I had sixteen different books to write. Much of the material was 
very hard to find and it took me several weeks to condense and arrange it. 


Then when it went to the printers, I was delayed again. 


I am sure it will never happen in the future with any order you. may 


send me and I hope the books will be of much value to you. 


MAMIE C. TEX, 
Taylorville, Ill. 


SECOND QUARTER 81 


as more deaths resulted from it than from any other disease. We 
used to think that if a mother had this disease, there was no 
chance for her recovery and more than that, in all probability 
some of her children would inherit it from her. It is just in 
recent years that this idea has changed... We now know tubercu- 
losis to be a germ disease and not one that can be inherited. We 
probably got this wrong idea from the fact that when a mother 
has this disease, there is the chance that her child might get it 
because he inherits the tendency to give in physically to tuberculo- 
sis germs. 

This discovery of the germ cause of tuberculosis has, done 
much towards making it less dreaded but it is still a disease, the 
name of which, ‘causes one to shudder. There is much more 
chance of recovery, however, than ever before. 

Except under very special conditions, the tuberculosis germ 
grows only in the animal body, which greatly lessens the danger 
of the spread of the disease. However the germ will live for 
_ months or even years outside the body and then be ready to grow 
when it enters the animal body. It lives best in damp dirty places 
or in decaying material. 

One can often tell by a persons looks, the nature of his dis- 
ease and this is especially true of tuberculosis. The person has a 
thin shriveled appearance and usually a hacking cough. There is 
a loss of appetite, the patient begins to get thin and weak and 
there is a slight fever and often times spitting of blood. 

While these germs may grow in any part of the body, the 
more favored place seems to be the lungs. Tuberculosis of the 
lungs is called consumption. The germs seem to have a way of 
growing in the tssues of the body and spread destruction as they 
go. | 
Sometimes the disease comes from the milk of diseased cat- 
tle, though that is one thing that is being watched carefully these 
days. More frequently the disease comes from the sputum of a 
consumptive. When the patient coughs or sneezes, many germs 
come forth and these germs, if they are allowed to become dry, 
will live for some time. If a patient is careful there is almost no 
danger to those around him. Every precaution should be taken 


82 SECOND QUARTER 


that the germs that are given forth shall not dry and with this 
care there will be little chance for a spread of the disease. Paper 
napkins are best to use and they should be burned at once. 

If one fears this disease, his best chance is to build up his 
general health so he has strength to combat the disease. Good 
food, fresh air and cleanliness are essential to good health. It is 
a rare thing for one to get the disease out of doors. If one has 
the disease, rest, good food and lots of fresh air are the essentials 
and are the important factors.rather than medicine. 

There are sanitariums where one may go to get the proper 
care or one may live at home if every precaution is taken not to 
spread the disease. Sunlight kills the germs more than anything 
else and the patient should endeavor to live out of doors. 

Surroundings have a great influence on tuberculosis patients 
or on those who have a tendency to give in to these germs. Our 
large buildings should be well ventilated and our houses should 
be light, open and cheerful. Damp cellars should be avoided. 
In the home, care should be taken to avoid stirring up the dust in 
cleaning. The vacuum cleaner is valuable in that it takes up the 
dirt rather than stirs it up to settle in some other part of the room. 

Tuberculosis is a disease in which one can cure himself. If 
he lives out of doors where he can get an abundance of fresh air 
and sunlight and has the proper food, he may cure himself with- 
out the use of medicine. While tuberculosis is a contageous dis- 
ease patients are not quarantined but they should have the inter-_ 
ests of others sufficiently at heart, that they would be careful not 
to spread the disease. The greatest of care should be taken that 
nothing that the patient uses is used by others and that all dis- 
charges from the nose and mouth are destroyed. ” 


Typhoid Fever. 


Typhoid fever is another dreaded disease and doubtiess 
comes next to tuberculosis in seriousness. It has been found that 
probably one out of every ten cases is fatal and those who do get 
over it are left with some weakness as a result of it. 

The bacteria that cause typhoid are taken in our food or 
water. These bacteria increase greatly in the small intestines 


SECOND QUARTER ° 83 


and form a poison that goes through the whole body. Unless 
something is done to reduce the number of bacteria which grow 
so rapidly, the body is injured and death results. 

The body sets up resistance to these germs as soon as they 
begin work and sometimes proves stronger than the germs, but 
this can not always be done. In recent years a specially prepared 
vaccine is injected into the veins. Almost immediately the white 
corpuscles multiply, even become six to eight times as numerous 
as before and the long run of fever that used to be a part of 
typhoid is avoided. 

Typhoid germs are carried by the wastes of the body. Any 
carelessness in the disposal of these wastes will doubtless mean 
sickness to others. There is danger if wastes from the intestines 
and kidneys are thrown out that they may seep into the ground 
and contaminate the drinking water or from the soil may get on 
the garden vegetables or that if they are left on the ground 
flies will find them and carry those disease germs to our food 
and give us the disease. 

There is little danger of contagion in typhoid if precautions 
are taken in the sick room and wastes of the patient carefully 
destroyed. 


Diphtheria. 


Diphtheria is a contageous: disease and a very serious one. 
sometimes grown people have it but it is much more frequent 
among children. 

The disease attacks mucous surfaces and covers them with 
a membrane which is tough and leathery. While the disease 
affects the throat especially, yet it weakens the whole body. Often 
times the child goes to bed complaining of a little cold or hoarse- 
ness and before morning the disease will have fully developed. 
There seems to be times of quiet and then spasms when the child 
seems hardly able to get his breath. Often the growth of mem- 
brane in the windpipe seems to almost stop the breathing. 

Diphtheria many times is fatal and even if the child is able to 
resist, there are often results such as paralysis of some part of 
the body, or the throat or other parts of the body are left in a 
weakened condition. 


+ 


84 SECOND QUARTER 


The disease is carried by the spreading of the germs the per- 
son gives off. Forunately these germs do not go great distances 
so the danger is in handling anything that has in any way come 
in contact with the patient. 

If there is any chance that a child has diphtheria, a physician 
should be summoned at once. All we can do is to try to keep up 
the strength of the patient until help comes. 

When the diphtheria germs enter our bodies, they give off 
toxins or poisons. Fortunately we have with us strength to 
battle with these disease germs and science is helping us in this 
work. The first thing is to quarantine the patient so others may 
not take the disease and then the antitoxin should be employed 
at the very beginning of the disease. 

Diphtheria is reduced some what by sanitary living. This 
with quarantine and antitoxin, gives us a much better chance for 
battling with the disease. 


Small Pox. 


Another of our contageous diseases caused by germs, is 
small pox. The disease used to be looked upon with horror for 
it is very contageous. It often left the person disfigured for life. 
There have been rather serious epidemics recently but no com- 
parison with the epidemic in times past. 

The discovery of vaccination has done much to get this dis- 
ease under control. The danger now comes from the disinclina- 
tion of people to be vaccinated. Fortunately in many schools to- 
day it is required so that the children are safe'from the disease. 

The germs of small pox are hard to destroy; they live a long 
time. Infected clothing may carry the small pox germ but it is 
usually transferred from one person to another through the air. 

A strict quarantine is necessary in small pox and every thing 
about the patient should be disinfected. 


Colds. 


Probably more of us suffer from colds than from any other 
one disease. The word “cold” is hardly the proper name for the 


SECOND QUARTER 85 


disease as cold air does not produce it, but we all know it by 
that name and will probably go on using the term. 


It seems almost useless to explain the nature of the disease, 
for when we begin to sneeze and cough and have pains all over « 
our bodies, we usually know our trouble. 


Colds are serious because they are contageous, they maks us 
less able to do our work and they fequently are the beginning of 
other diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia and diphtheria. 


In some diseases a germicidal substance is formed by our 
bodies to resist the disease. In the case of measles, scarlet fever 
etc., some of the bacteria remains in the body so we will not take 
the disease again, but this germicidal substance formed in colds 
remains such a short time that ina few hours after a cold leaves 
us, we may take another one. 


Sometimes medicine is taken for a cold with good results 
but there are other ways of avoiding them or curing them when 
they come. Vigorous exercise taken out of doors will often stop 
a cold if it is just beginning and deep breathing is always helpful. 


Those who protect themselves too much by heavy clothing 
catch cold more easily than those who do not dress so heavily and 
who get used to exposure. If we have colds we should avoid 
drafts, eat light food, and often times a few days spent in bed 
would be a wonderful help. 


We frequently hear some one say he is not ill—just has a 
cold but colds are serious and should be taken care of. 


Infection of Open Sores and Cuts. 


Open sores and cuts would hardly come under any disease 
but they are important in the study of disease germs. Even in a 
slight scratch there is a danger of infection. In deep cuts or 
sores there is greater danger of infection for there is the possi- 
bility that some foreign substance may be in the cut. In this 
case blood poisoning may result. If the wound is infected it 
soon gets red, swells and begins to hurt, and if blood poisoning 
sets in, the person may be seriously ill. 


86 SECOND QUARTER 


The reason for infection is that germs get into the wound. 
Germs may come from anything that touches it so there is need 
for care that absolutely nothing touches the wound. The white 
corpuscles can fight off some of these germs but if there are too 
many, infection results. 


Sometimes a cut bleeds and if there is not too much loss of 
‘ blood, this is a good thing, for the blood washes impurities from 
the sore. 


A cut or sore should be carefully bandaged after it has been 
washed, and care taken to keep it perfectly clean that there may 
be no danger of infection. 


THIRD QUARTER 87 


THIRD QUARTER. 


SANITATION. 
Sanitation vs. Hygiene. 


Sanitation has to do with the public health and hygiene with 
individual health. While these two terms have different mean- 
ings, they are closely allied. Individual héalth influences public 
health and public health on the other hand influences individual 
health. 

We live in wonderfully constructed houses which we call 
our bodies. The study of hygiene should show us that we need 
to take care of these bodies and keep them in good repair just as 
we do our houses of brick and stone and mortar. We can do 
this if we keep disease away from our madics: so that they may 
be kept strong. 

We ought to strive to have good health as our usefulness in 
the world depends upon the mental and physical energy we have. 

Sanitation is the study of conditions that have to do with the 
health of the community. Sanitation treats of the maintenance 
of health as well as the prevention of disease. If there are no 
laws governing health, the chances of our own individual health 
are not very good. Thus we see that sanitation and hygiene 
depend upon each other, and that each is an important factor in 
bringing about the good health of a community. 


Why Public Health Measures are Necessary. 


Public health measures are necessary for the protection of 
the people. If we lived in an ideal land where every one was 
careful, unselfish, and thoughtful for others, public health meas- 
ures would not be necessary, but often people with diseases do 
not protect others from it so it is necessary that we have a board 
of health for this purpose. 


88 THIRD QUARTER 


The United States has taken this matter in hand and has 
extended its authority three miles out into the sea in every di- 
rection. Before this was done, ships could come from other 
countries and bring all kinds of contagious diseases, among which 
were the dreaded smallpox and yellow fever. We knew that 
epidemics of these diseases were in the countries but it would 
ruin our trade if we let that fact keep ships from those countries 
from entering our ports. As a solution to the problem, health 
officers were appointed to inspect these ships. We can not go 
into detail as to how this is done but all are familiar with Ellis 
Island, in New York Harbor, where people with diseases are 
kept and either cured or sent back to their own countries. 


A disease of Oriental countries which is much to be feared 
is the bubonic plague. Rats spread this disease. A rat is not 
particular about his food. He will eat almost anything and on 
the ships eats up the bad food that contains germs. The public 
health department is doing everything to exterminate rats such as 
hunting them out from ware houses and piers, and stringing steel 
plates on cables so that the rats can not run along the cables to 
shore when the ships enter our ports. 


Science has done much to overcome plagues or epidemics 
which years ago killed many. Diseases are not destroyed but 
only checked. Carelessness catises them to flourish. Here is 
where our board of health is necessary—to prevent this careless- 
ness. Vaccination has done much to stop smallpox and hygienic 
measures have greatly reduced the death rate of scarlet fever, 
typhoid fever and measles. 

The United States Census Bureau reports that by the intro- 
duction of pure water supplies, the annual death rate from ty- 
phoid fever in cities, has been greatly reduced. Public health 
measures are steadily increasing the average length of life. 


How the Increase in Population Has Complicated the Health 
Problem. 


From the time when our forefathers landed in this country, 
the people have ‘had health problems to solve. As time goes on 
science does much to solve these problems but the great increase 
in population makes them more and more complicated. 


BY 


THIRD QUARTER 89 


When people live some distance from each other they have 
rights and privileges which they do not have when they live close 
together. 

Man should have pure air, good nourishing food, a good 
home, a clean body and attractive surroundings. In the country 
this is not a difficult problem but in the city the increase in popu- 
lation makes it a serious problem. 

Our cities, however are every where organizing to provide 
the essentials of sanitation. There are street cleaners who keep > 
the streets as clean as possible. Parks are provided where the 
people can get fresh air. Food inspectors are appointed to see 
that only pure food is sold under sanitary conditions. 

To keep food and air and water free of disease germs can 
not help being a problem where people live so close together but 
with a good health department to watch the needs of the people, 
disease is kept down. 


Why it is Necessary for All of the People to Observe Public 
Health Measures. 


Public health measures are not of very great value unless all 
of the people observe them. We may do our part but if our 
neighbor does not do his we are in danger. 

Let us suppose, to illustrate this point, that ten families in 
our small town have measles. All of them are quarantined. A 
boy in one family is not very sick with them so he goes to the 
movies in the evening. He will do more harm in one evening 
than the other nine families respecting the board of health rulings 
will do in their whole period of quarantine. . 

Suppose again that a member of the family living next door 
to you has typhoid fever. We know that typhoid germs are 
carried by the wastes of the body. If this family is careless and 
throws the wastes in the back yard near the well where you get 
your drinking water, the water may become polluted and the dis- 
ease carried to your whole family. 

Illustrations could be drawn from any of the contageous 
diseases. The danger comes not from the nine families who obey 


90 THIRD QUARTER 


the regulations of the board of health but from the one careless, 

selfish family who considers only its own wishes. | 
These illustrations show that public health measures are 

necessary and that it is essential that all the people observe them. 


Carelessness of a Few May Endanger All of the People. 


We are to discuss the reason why carelessness and neglect on 
the part of a few may endanger all of the people through the 
water supply, food supply, by careless disposal of sewage, by 
breaking quarantine regulations, by refusing to obey muzzling 
ordinances, through disposal of animal refuse which breeds house 
flies and the like. | 

Many people are careless, some selfish, and other not well 
informed. Unfortunately we must live in communities where 
there are all of these classes of people. 

We will discuss briefly the ways in which carelessness and 
neglect on the part of a few endanger all the people. 

Through water supply—W ater is so important to the health 
of people that there should be a good supply of pure water. Sup- 
pose a town gets its supply of water from a near by lake. A 
careless man wishing to dispose of some rubbish could throw a 
load of it into this lake and as a result the water would be unfit 
for use. 

Through food supply—A merchant may be careless about 
the care of his groceries. When he displays cookies, candy, un- 
wrapped bread or anything that cannot be washed before it is 
used, he is selling disease germs with the goods. When the 
butcher sells meats that have not been inspected and that are not 
strictly fresh, he is endangering lives by so doing. 

By careless disposal of sewage.—A housewife may have the 
habit of throwing her garbage in a vacant lot behind her house. 
The flies will find this a regular banquet table and from this de- 
caying matter, carry germs in every direction. 

By breaking quarantine regulations.—The board of health 
quarantines to isolate the patient and keep him from spreading 
disease to others. If he breaks quarantine, he is breaking the laws 
and injurying others. ' 


THIRD QUARTER a1 


By refusing to obey muzzling ordinances.—In cities and 
larger towns dogs must be kept muzzled as a protection to people 
passing on the street. Naturally each one feels that his own dog 
is harmless but it is always the unmuzzled dog that bites. 

Through disposal of animal refuse which breeds house flies. 
—Animal refuse is one of the best places for breeding flies. If 
the animal refuse is not cared for but is allowed to accumulate in 
the barn yard, from it will come numerous house flies and these 
flies carrying dangerous germs may enter your house and carry 
these disease germs to your food. 

When we can teach people to be careful of these seemingly 
little things and show them that the few who are careless en- 
danger all of the people, we may hope for improved conditions in 
the health of our people. 


These Points Suggest Excellent Subjects for Compositions. 


The points in the topics just discussed would make excellent 
subjects for compositions. If the pupils study into these health 
problems they will become so interested that they will be careful 
themselves and try to help other to be careful. 


Value of Personal Qualities, 


The course of study urges that we bring out strongly the 
value of personal qualities such as reliability, self control, honesty, 
thoughtfulness for the welfare of others, and helpfulness. to 
others in times of epidemics. 

If people were willing to do the right thing in times of an 
epidemic, the danger of spreading the disease would be much 
less. 

To illustrate the value of these personal qualities in epidemics, 
let us suppose two families A and B, have the diphtheria and have 
been quarantined by the board of health. The first family A, . 
has respect for its quarantine. It realizes the danger of spread- 
ing the disease and does not try to deceive the public about it. It 
is careful that nothing goes from the house that would in any way 
cause others to have the disease. It sees to it that when things 


92 THIRD QUARTER 


are brought to the house, the person who leaves them is not ex- 
posed in any way. It does not leave the house until the patient 
is well of the disease and all evidences of the disease are state 
and everything properly fumigated. 

In the next house is a family B, who pretend that the disease 
doesn’t amount to anything. It, though quarantined, sneaks out 
whenever possible and scatters germs broadcast. This B family 
goes among people before it should and is careless about fumi- 
gating. 

This family B is one of the great hinderances to the welfare 
of any community and should be made to feel by the people of 
the community that it is a menace and an undesirable part of its 


life. 


Cases for Discussion. 


The course of study suggests that the pupils observe and list 
cases for discussion in class where the public health is, or has 
been, endangered by one or a few who fail to observe regulations 
relative to quarantine and the like. 

Work of this kind would doubtless prove interesting to the 
pupils. It would be something out of the ordinary and might 
prove to be a very helpful proceeding. In every community there 
are cases that would make helpful material for investigation and 
study. There are families where typhoid fever occurs regularly. 
There is usually a reason for this which upon investigation, the 
pupils might surmise. This would prove interesting and in- 
structive to the pupils and might, if worked out with officials aid, 
prove helpful to the family itself. 

There may be cases where contagious diseases such as 
measles or whooping cough are found in families and those fami- 
lies are either not quarantined or are ignoring the quarantine sign. 
The more our pupils investigate these cases, the more interested 
they will become and the more careful they will be when they are 
quarantined for disease. 

Education is one of the greatest factors in this whole question. 
Professor Pasteur, to whom we gave much credit in the study of 
bacteria, says that it is within the power of man to rid himself of 


THIRD QUARTER 93 


every bacterial disease. If this is true we can do a great deal by 
teaching our pupils to observe conditions and do all they can to 
better these conditions and learn to take care of their own 
bodies. 


Everyone Should Be Compelled to Obey Health Regulations. 


There are various reasons why the public, represented by the 
board of health, has a right to compel every one to obey health 
regulations. 

Laws have to be made to make people do right and a police 
force must be organized to make them obey the laws. Unfor- 
tunately people will not do right for rights sake but must be forced 
to doit. The public, which is represented by the board of health, 
has a right to compel every one to obey health regulations the 
same as they obey other laws. 

The board of health has done much to protect people from 
disease. It makes regulations for the purifying of our water 
supply and the careful handling of our food. It makes regula- 
tions for the disposal of sewage, perhaps the greater factor in les- 
- sening the spread of disease germs. When people are sick with 
contageous diseases the board of health can quarantine them, in- 
sisting that they stay at home until the disease is over and the 
house is fumigated and made safe for others. 

The board of health does a valuable work and people should 
be compelled to obey its health regulations. 


WATER SUPPLY. 
Review. 


A special review of the work done in the earlier grades, 
relative to clean water, will not be given as the discussion of 
water supply that follows covers practically all of the work of 
the earlier grades. 


Local Conditions. 


It is very valuable, with the pupils of this grade, to make a 
careful study of the locality of the water supply. The pupils 


94 THIRD QUARTER 


should know where their drinking water comes from and the 
sanitary conditions of the surroundings of the water supply. 

Maps showing the slope of the land, and the possible sources 
of pollution are helpful. The pupils could draw the maps repre- 
senting the location and surroundings of the water supply to show 
whether there is any liklihood of water pollution. 

If there are water works or water purifying stations near, 
these may be studied to advantage. 

All of the above work depends wholly upon the locality epg 
must be worked out by each individual school. 


The Purification of Water. 


Water is one of the essentials of life and is even more neces- 
sary than food. Water is used in great quantities and for many 
purposes. It is used for drinking purposes, for cooking, for 
cleaning of all kinds, for fire protection and in manufacturing 
plants. For drinking purposes and for cooking, it is necessary 
that the water be pure or at least free from disease germs. There 
are three ways of purifying water, by filters, by chemicals and by 
boiling. These three ways will be discussed separately. 

By filters—Cities usually have to get their water from rivers 
or lakes. Often times sewage has been emptied into these sources 
and the water is polluted-and not safe to drink but must be puri- 
fied in some way. One of the best ways is to run the water into 
a large reservoir where it is allowed to stand until most of the 
dirt settles to the bottom, and then it is put through a filter. Sand 
is usually used as a filter for sand seems to take out the dirt and 
the germs better than anything else. Often there are several of 
these filteration beds. The first will be of coarse gravel and each 
bed will be finer so when the water comes through the fine sand 
it is clear and reasonably pure. Filteration removes the solid 
particles to which bacteria cling. Then the soil bacteria helps in 
this filtering process by seizing these disease germs and in some 
way changing them into harmless substances. 

By Chemicals——Sometimes alum is put into water before it 
enters the sand filters. Alum assists or rather quickens the pro- 
cess of purifying. Chloride of lime is used to destroy bacteria 


THIRD QUARTER 95 


directly. It purifies the water but if too much is used it gives to 
it a taste that is not pleasant. Chemicals are sometimes used to 
soften water used for washing but purifying water by chemicals 
is not as satisfactory as by filteration. 

By botiling.—Boiling is a method of purifying water that any 
-one can use. The water should be boiled about twenty minutes, 
then put into clean bottles and covered. In rural districts this 1s 
about the only way of purifying water. Boiling gives a rather 
flat taste to the water but makes it pure and safe to drink, and is 
a very useful method in times of epidemics caused by impure 
water. 


Ea 


Danger of surface Drainage Into Dug Wells and Pollution of 
‘Streams From Sewage. 


For the most part our water supply comes from wells or 
streams of water. Some cities are so fortunately located that 
they can get their water supply from mountain streams but cities 
so situated are few compared to those which must depend upon 
wells and streams for their water. 

The danger of surface drainage into dug wells can be readily 
seen. Deep wells get their supply from veins of water running 
far below the surface of the earth. While these may not always 
be pure, as a rule they go through a filtering process provided by 
nature and if the entrance to the well is protected so dirt and 
refuse can not get into it, the water from the deep well is reason- 
ably pure. Dug wells are not very deep and must depend for 
their supply either upon water from the surface or water that has 
seeped into the earth not far from the surface. We can plainly 
see the likelihood of impurities being washed into the well from 
the surroundings. Even if the entrance to the well is walled in, 
as it should be, the water that seeps into the ground does not go 
through enought of a filtering process and impurities are easily 
taken into the well. 

Where the supply of water is taken from a river, the water is 
bound to be impure. Protect the river as authorities may, there 
is always some one who will be careless about throwing refuse and 
sewage into the stream. To be safe for drinking purposes, water 
must be purified if it comes from a body of water. 


96 } THIRD QUARTER 


Heavy Rains Affect Wells Fed Upon Surface Drainage; How 
Water May Reach a Well Although the Level of the Soil 
Slopes Away From the Curb. 


The falling of heavy rains has a great effect upon wells that 
are fed to some degree by surface drainage. . This is almost too 
self evident to need discussion. A heavy rain washes away what- 
ever is loose on the ground and often carries it some distance. 
If a well is fed by surface drainage, when a heavy rain comes, 
pollution of all kinds is washed into it and the water is made unfit 
for use. : 


Wells are not fed entirely by surface water in shallow wells — 
so even if the mouth of the well seems to be higher than the soil 
around it, the impurities go into the ground and are washed into 
the veins which feed the well and make the water impure. 


Water must go down some distance into the ground before a 
natural filtering process takes place. Often water, seeping into 
dug wells from the surface does not pass through sufficient earth 
and sand to purify it. 


Contamination of Water by Common Drinking Cups, UnClean- 
liness and Human Carriers. 


Absolutely pure water is not found very frequently but we do 
make it free from disease germs and safe for people to use. 
Water may come from a faucet in a high degree of purity and be 
polluted after it is drawn from the faucet.. This may be done by 
the common drinking cups, by uncleanliness, and by human 
carriers. , 


The common drinking cup has been supplanted in most 
places by drinking fountains and the individual drinking cup. 
Not so many years ago, we had one pail of water and one drink- 
ing cup for an entire room of children, in school. We have heard 
so much about the dangers of the common drinking cup, that we 
do not consider using it any more. When all used the same cup, 
one diseased child could expose a whole room full of children 
when he drank from the cup. 


THIRD QUARTER 97 


Pure water may be made dangerous by uncleanliness. If the 
water is put into dishes that are not clean or left in unsanitary 
surroundings, it soon becomes polluted. 

Human carriers of disease can contaminate good drinking 
water by using cups and leaving them for others to use. So 
many people, who are not well and whose bodies give off disease 
germs constantly, are not careful when around other people and 
so cause sickness among others. 


‘Ice Supply; Survey of the Ice Pond; Artificial Ice and Its 
Character Relative to Purity. 


Ice made from impure water is just as dangerous as the 
water itself. Freezing does not kill disease germs. Freezing 
simply makes the germs inactive and when they get back to a 
favorable location and temperature, they come to life. 

If ice is to used in the drinking water, we should be sure it 
is made from pure water or dangerous results may follow. 

If ice is taken from a pond near by, have the pupils make a 
survey of the immediate locality for sources of pollution. “This 
is practical work for the pupils depending wholly upon local con- 
ditions. 

Artificial ice is ice frozen by an artificial process rather than 
ice taken from'a pond. Inasmuch as the freezing process does 
not kill bacteria, artificial ice is as pure as the water from which 
it is frozen. 


Compositions. 


Composition subjects ere suggested. These will each be dis- 
cussed briefly and the pupils should be able to write longer com- 
positions from them. 


Need of cleanliness about our water supply—There is need 
of cleanliness about our water supply whether it comes from a 
well or from some stream. The top of the well should be 
cemented and carefully covered that no impure water can get into 
it and that no refuse can fall in to pollute the water. Water 


98 THIRD QUARTER ° 


coming from a stream should be filtered and care should be used 
that every thing about the filtering and carrying the supply to the 
house should be kept in perfect condition. So much water is 
used by every one that it is necessary that it be kept clean. | 

The location of the well—When planning for a well, care 
should be taken in choosing a location. We must be sure that 
water from cess pools or barn yards can not find its way into the 
well. If we want good pure well water, we must be careful of 
the location of its source. 

Disposal of sewage and our water supply.—Disposal of sew- 
age is a problem in itself because so much harm can come from 
sewage if it is not properly disposed of. Care must be taken in 
the disposal of sewage that is is not thrown into a stream that 
furnishes water for people and that it will not drain off into some 
well that is used for drinking water. Sewage and water must be 
kept far apart. , 

Our water supply and typhoid fever.—The germs of typhoid 
fever are some times carried in our drinking water. As the germs 
come from the wastes of the body, these wastes should never be 
thrown where they can be washed into water used for drinking. 
Carelessness in disposal of these wastes have resulted in hundreds 
of cases of typhoid fever. 


MILK SUPPLY. 


A review of the contamination of milk through different 
sources will not be given as these points are included in the dis- 
cussion which follows. 


The Danger of Human Carriers who Sometimes Handle Milk. 


Milk may be taken from healthy cows and be pure and sweet 
but be contaminated, before it reaches us, by those who handle it. 
Picture two milkers: One farmer comes in from his work in the 
field. It has been a hot afternoon. He is in a hurry to do the 
milking before supper as the family is going to the movies in the 
evening. His clothes are covered with dust from the grain he 
has been hauling. He has put his team in the barn and his hands 
have on them the dirt that has come from the field and from the 


THIRD QUARTER 99 


oy 


care of the horses. He lights his pipe, snatches a pail that has 
been standing on a bench near the house since morning, does not 
take any time to clean the cows and begins his milking. The 
other milker drives the cows into a stable, with a cement floor, 
that has been thoroughly cleaned, he takes a damp cloth and wipes 
off the cows so that no dirt from them gets into the milk. He 
puts on a clean suit of overalls takes a pail that has just been 
sterilized, and washing his hands, goes to his milking. These 
pictures may seem like the two extremes but they are not impos- 
sible or improbable. 

The man who milks the cows can be careful about getting 

dirt in the milk. The dairyman who bottles the milk should be 
careful of his work and the man who delivers it should do his part 
in seeing that every thing possible is done to keep the milk in 
good condition. 
' A man with a contagious disease may easily spread disease 
germs by handling milk. Bottles carelessly washed may carry 
disease germs. Human carriers may make milk unfit and may be 
just as much of a menace as unhealthy cows. 


Sanitary Inspection of Dairies; Inspection of Cattle for Tuber- 
culosis; Danger from Tuberculosis from Cattle. 


In the country, people have their own cows and the people 
are directly responsible for the condition of their milk. It is their 
duty to see to it that the cows are healthy, that the milk pails are 
sterilized, the men who do the milking are clean and free from 
disease, and that the milk is properly cared for. 

In small towns when people get milk from some neighbor 
who keeps a cow for his own use or from a near by farmer, the 
people should see to it personally that the milk they buy is good 
pure milk brought from sanitary places. 

In the cities the problem is greater. The milk supply comes 
from farmers in every direction. It is brought to the city where 
it is cared for in dairies and from there sent out to the homes. 
It would be impossible for each family to see to it that the milk 
. was pure. Health officers are appointed by the city to do this 
for us. They are to visit the dairies where our milk is bottled 
ready for use, to make sure that the milk is properly handled and 


100 THIRD QUARTER 


e 


kept in clean places. These health officers must go even further 
and see to it that this milk comes from healthy cows. Tests are 
made regularly to see that the milk is up to standard in purity 
and richness. 

Tuberculosis among cattle is not the same as among people 
but is a similar disease. Milk from cows with tuberculosis should 
never be used. Often times a cow with this disease is killed at 
once for will spread rapidly among a drove of cattle. 

We now have what we call the tuberculin test for cattle and 
by means of this test, it is easy to determine whether a cow has 
tuberculosis. Some of the poison of the tuberculosis germ is 
injected into the cow. If the cow develops a fever in a short 
time, it shows that she has tuberculosis. All cows should be 
tested regularly for the disease. 

If cows have tuberculosis they give infected milk which 1s 
dangerous to all who drink it. 

Cows, like people, need proper care and good surroundings 
to be healthy. Stables should be kept clean and there should be 
good food and plenty of fresh air provided. 

Tuberculosis germs in the milk are especially dangerous for 
children. From them they contract a disease very similar to 
that of the cows. However, a milker with tuberculosis may do 
more harm in spreading the disease than the cows with the dis- 
ease. 

Laws are made requiring that cows be tested regularly for 
tuberculosis so if proper care is exercised, the danger from 
cattle should not be very great. 


The Keeping Qualities of Clean as Compared with Dirty Milk. 


The keeping qualities of clean milk are much greater than 
that of dirty milk. The composition of milk is such that dirt may 
be contained in it but not be visible to the naked eye. A differ- 
ence is noticed, however, in the keeping qualities. 

Milk ordinarily sours quickly. Dirty milk is full of bacteria 
and because of that sours much more quickly than sweet milk. 

Clean milk, 1f properly cared for will keep sweet a long time. 
It is said that we can produce milk so clean that it may be sent 
across the ocean and back and still be sweet. 


THIRD QUARTER 101 


Clean milk is preferable to dirty milk both because it keeps 
longer and because it is much more healthful. 


Ice and the Keeping of Milk. 


It is so important that milk be kept cold that in the cities 
where there are people who can not afford to buy ice, it is pro- 
vided for them by different city institutions. Children must have 
milk and milk to be sweet and pure must be kept cold. Providing 
ice for the poor with small children, saves much in keeping dis- 
ease from them. 

Milk requires greater care than almost any other food. As 
soon as it is left at the door, it should be put into the refrigerator 
as close to the ice as possible, and it should always be kept cov- 
ered. Food with strong odors such as onions and cabbage should 
be kept far from milk for it is easily tainted by these foods. 

In warm weather milk sours quickly. This sour milk is 
dangerous for babies who take no food except milk. 

Microbes are always present in milk. When milk is warm, 
these microbes multiply until they are countless numbers. As 
these microbes increase, they change the sugar in milk to an acid 
which gives the milk a sour taste. 7 

These microbes that sour the milk are not harmful.and sour 
milk is not a bad food for older people, but when there are dis- 
ease germs in the milk and the milk is allowed to get warm, the 
germs multiply rapidly and the disease germs are harmful to 
people. 

Milk should be kept cold for when it is cold the bacteria in it 
can not grow and the milk can be kept pure and sweet much 
longer. 


A Trip of Inspection. 


A trip of inspection to some high class dairy is suggested as 
being valuable to the pupils studying milk supply. It might be 
valuable too, to have the pupils observe practices that are un- 
sanitary relative to milking and the care of milk and discuss them 
in class, 


102 - THIRD QUARTER 
Compositions. (@ 


Composition subjects are suggested. Each will be discussed 
briefly : 

Danger from unclean milk.—Milk is one of the greatest dis- 
tributors of disease germs of all the foods. Milk is the most 
difficult of all foods to care for. There are so many chances for 
dirt to get into the milk. Dirt may come from the cow or from 
the milker when the cow is being milked; it may come from 
bottles that have not been washed clean; it may come from care- 
lessness in delivering milk, and it may come from neglect in caring 
for it after it reaches the home. 


Diseases such as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria, or 
scarlet fever are so easily carried in the milk that great care 
should be taken to see to it that at all times milk is kept clean. 

Cleanliness and the Milk Business —Cleanliness and the milk 
business should go hand in hand. Cleanliness is so essential to 
the milk business that the board of health should be sure that milk 
is cared for under the most sanitary conditions and delivered to 
the homes as pure sweet milk. The housewife should then do her 
share towards keeping it clean until it is used by the family. 

Under these conditions milk is a perfect food and should be 
used freely by all. | 

Healthy Cattle and our milk supply.—Miulk is our most per- 
fect food and even with the high prices, our cheapest food. A 
housewife should allow a pint of milk a day for each member 
of the family and growing boys and girls should have a quart. 
On the other hand milk requires greater care in handling than 
any other food. Considering the quantity we use, in comparison 
with any other food and the careful handling it requires to have 
the milk kept in good condition, we can see how necessary it is 
that our milk supply comes from healthy cows: 

Cows require good food and surroundings the same as people 
do. Cows that live on the prairies where all is open and fresh 
air is abundant, are usually free from disease. Cows that are 
kept in stables and on pastures should be given the proper food 
and stables should be kept clean and should be light and airy. 
Then the cows will be healthy and give good pure milk. 


THIRD QUARTER 103 


We should see to it that our milk supply comes from such 
cows if we-are interested in the welfare of our family. 


FOOD SUPPLY. 


A review will not be necessary as the work done in the earlier 
grades is covered for the most part in this discussion. 


Need of Care in Handling Food Whether at Home or in Stores; 
Value of Trustworthiness and Honesty in Handling Food. 


Food is anything that we take into our bodies as nourish- 
ment. In order that this food may be kept in good condition for 
our bodies, there is need of care in handling it whether at home 
or in the store. Only persons with clean hands and clean cloth- 
ing should be allowed to handle food and when food is put away 
it should be kept in clean places protected from dirt and filth. 

In stores the food should be kept covered and wrapped and 
carefully handled and in the homes care should be exercised in 
the same way. 

Our bodies are protected from disease germs in that they can 
destroy a reasonable number of germs but in one bite of bad food 
there may be a great number of germs, even more than the body 
can destroy, so it is necessary that we take great care that the 
food we eat is good wholesome food. 

We know that fresh fruits and vegetables have few bacteria 
and we know that when good food is in cold storage, bacteria 
does not grow and multiply. If we can have trustworthy-honest 
men handling our food supplies, who will not put unfit food on the 
market, our chances for pure food are good. 


Lists of Foods That Are Most Likely to Become Contaminated 
With Disease Germs; Foods Eaten Uncooked are 
Generally the Most Dangerous. 


All foods contain bacteria to a greater or less degree. Some- 
times these bacteria are not harmful as the bacteria which sours 
milk and cream and prepares it for the making of cheese and 
butter. Fortunately if we have strong healthy bodies we can 


104 THIRD QUARTER 


fight and overcome some of the harmful disease germs. Some 
foods, especially when they are not in perfect condition, contain 
many disease germs, and these we should aim to avoid. 


Milk should come first as one of the foods most likely to 
become contaminated with disease germs. The reasons for the 
frequent contamination of milk have been discussed fully in the 
section on “Milk Supply.” 


Meat would probably come next to milk in this list and lastly 
the fresh vegetables and fruits. 


Other foods are sometimes contaminated with disease germs 
but these mentioned are the most likely ones. 


Our bodies are like gas engines or steam engines. In the 
same way that these engines need fuel to make them do their 
work, we need food to make our bodies proficient. An inferior 
quality of fuel will keep the engine from doing good work and in 
the same way poor food will keep our bodies from being fit. 
Good food in the proper quantities is necessary to build up strong 
healthy bodies. 


Man is the only animal that cooks his food. He does it be- 
cause he has found that foods, eaten uncooked, are often dan- 
gerous. 


We cook foods for various reasons. Cooking makes food 
more easily digested; it makes food more appetizing, and it de- 
troys bacteria and parasites. 

Some fruits and vegetables are eaten raw. At the present 
time there is a tendency to eat more of our vegetables, such as 
cabbage .and carrots, without cooking. Cooking does destroy 
some element of the food that the body requires. In eating raw 
food, great care should be taken that the food is fresh and in good 
condition and that it has been thoroughly washed. Raw foods ~ 
carry microbes to the alimentary canal but the number will be 
greatly lessened if the raw food is clean when we eat it. 

Meats should always be cooked. Cooking is done in the case 
of meats not to make the food more digestible but to kill possible 
parasites in the meat. These parasites are found more frequently 
in pork than in any other meat. 


THIRD QUARTER 105 


Most states have laws requiring the inspection of animals 
used for food but there is enough carelessness in the handling of 
meat that the only safe way is to cook it. 

While our bodies seem to require some of the raw foods, care 
must be taken in the use of them as uncooked foods are generally 
somewhat dangerous. 


Poisoning from Protein Foods; Sanitary Methods of Delivering 
And Carrying Foods. 


Proteins build up the tissues of our bodies. They are neces- 
sary in the diet but not in quantities. Proteins come from meat, 
eggs, milk and to some extent from cereals. Protein foods are 
among the more expensive. . 

These protein foods are not harmful in small quantities but 
if we eat meat too frequently, we get too much protein and this is 
thought to be one cause of kidney trouble. Parasites such as 
tapeworms and trichina are sometimes taken into the body by 
eating meats so care should be taken that all meats should be so 
very carefully inspected and thoroughly cooked. 

If we are to be sure our food is pure, we must consider more 
than the grocery store from which it came. We should know 
something of the method of gathering it, how it was packed, and 
all the various processes it goes through before reaching our 
homes. Carelessness in any one of the processes may spoil the 
food. 

Any food touched with human hands is dangerous. Haven't 
you seen a delivery man from a bakery stop to change his tire and 
then pick up an armful of unwrapped bread and carry it into a 
grocery store? Haven’t you gone into a grocery store and had 
the clerk reach into a jar with his hands and count out your 
pickles before putting them into the container? The handling of 
any kinds of foodstuff should be done in a most sanitary way if 
we are going to escape these many disease germs that are all 
around us. 

Care should be taken in the packing of meat, the wrapping 
of bread, the canning of fruits and vegetables and the milling of 
flour. 


106 THIRD QUARTER 


All foods should be delivered to ts in the best possible con- 
dition. 


Contamination of Foods From Polluted Soil Such as Celery and 
Radishes; Sanitary Grocery Stores. 


In some places in the West they have what are called sewage 
farms. On these farms the sewage is run out over the ground, 
and is used as fertilizer. This makes a rich soil and seems safe 
for the growing of grains of different kinds and fruit but it is not 
safe for vegetables that are eaten raw such as celery, radishes etc. 

A few years ago sanitary grocery stores were not at all 
frequent. Before people understood about bacteria there did 
not seem to be great need of carefulness. We liked to go into 
clean stores because the appearance of the place appealed to us 
but we didn’t realize the great dangers in the stores that were not 
so clean. 

Even in these days when we want the best possible food for 
our families, some stores are careless in their care of food. 
There are certain things we demand of our grocery stores now: 

Goods that can not be washed before using should not be dis- 
played in the open in the stores or on the side walks. 

All bread should be wrapped. Bacteria on unwrapped bread 
is not especially dangerous but unclean bread is not attractive. 

Flies should be kept away from all food for more filth is 
carried by flies than in almost any other way. 

Overripe fruit and vegetables should not be sold. When 
fruit or vegetables begin to spoil, bacteria begin to grow and | 
multiply so the articles are unfit for use. 

Perishable goods should be kept in cold storage but ee 
that are beginning to spoil should not be placed in cold storage as 
things can not be benefitted by it. Perishable foods should be 
kept under glass or should be screened in and goods such as sugar 
and flour should be covered. 

All meats should be inspected. Animals Chaat i be ex- 
amined, and then killed under sanitary conditions and kept in 
cold storage until used. 


THIRD QUARTER 107 


There are other things we could mention that are expected 
of a sanitary grocery store but enough have been mentioned to 
perhaps open our eyes to the need for good clean food if we want 
to keep strong and well. 


Preserving of Foods by Sugar, Salt and Vinegar; Danger of 
Chemical Preservatives. 


Food is often preserved when it is in season so that it can be 
used later. The safest and best preservers of food are sugar, 
salt and vinegar. Bacteria will not grow:and increase in any of 
these. 

If we make our preserves rich with sugar, even though the 
containers are not sealed, the fruit will keep a long time. Sugar 
is also used in preserving milk. In condensed milk, water is 
taken out and sugar added and this process will keep it indefi- 
nitely. 

Salt is used especially in preserving fish and meat. We have 
the different kinds of salt fish, and salt pork but since the days 
of cold storage salt is not used as much in preserving meats. 

Vinegar stops the growth of germs. If we prepare buttered 
beets they will keep only two or three days at the most, but if we 
_pickle them, they will keep a long time. The same is true of 
other fruits and vegetables. 

These preservatives, sugar, salt, and vinegar change the food 
but little and are the only safe ones to use. 

Chemicals are often used to preserve foods. The require- 
ments are that the chemicals used do preserve the food and that 
they do not harm it. Some chemicals preserve food but in them- 
selves ate harmful. An illustration of this is the use of formalde- 
hyde to preserve milk. It keeps the milk sweet but the milk thus 
doctored is not healthful. 

Alum, boracic acid and sulphites are used to preserve foods. 
Our pure food laws insist that when any such chemicals are used, 
the labels shall state the fact. It is not against the laws to use 
these chemicals and while a small amount is not particularly 
harmful, there is always the danger that too much will be used. 
It is always safer to read labels and if any chemical is used, avoid 
that particular brand of goods. We may get more of the chemi- 
cal than our systems can take care of and be poisoned by it. 


108 THIRD QUARTER 


INSECTS AND SANITATION. 
Insects as Disease Carriers. How House Flies Carry Germs. 


Since the discovery of bacteria, it has been definitely de- 
termined that insects carry disease germs. 


The mosquito is probably the insect most dreaded as it carries — 


yellow fever and malaria. This particular kind of mosquito is 
commonly called the malaria mosquito. When it bites a person it 
injects the germs into him and so spreads the disease. 

The housefly is known to be a great disease germ carrier. It 
spreads typhoid fever, diphtheria, smallpox and many other 
diseases. Some of these diseases are carried by flies from the 
wastes of the body and some from the filth in the streets. 

The germ of the bubonic plague are spread by fleas. These 
fleas live on the bodies of rats and when the rats, that are subject 
to the plague, die the fleas leave their bodies and oftentimes bite 
some person and infects him with the plague. People in clean, 
well kept houses are not so likely to take this disease as those who 
are careless about the matters of cleanliness. 

Other insects carry disease and the more we study this sub- 
ject, the more we feel that all insects, such as roaches, bed bugs, 
flies etc., should never be allowed in our homes. ‘ 

House flies are attracted to places where filth has accumu- 
lated and they carry germs from this filth to food that is left un- 
covered or to the dishes that are to be used for food. Flies may 
carry these germs to people who have sores or cuts and infest 
them. They may go to the barn yard where the milking is being 
done and carry germs directly to the milk. 

It almost seems as though flies were made to carry germs. 
Every part of their bodies is so constructed that it can be simply 
covered with germs. The fly is small and the germs so minute 
that we can not see them. If we could see them, doubtless we 
would fear the fly more than some of us seem to do. When we 
see a fly buzzing around the room touching food and dishes here 
and there, if we just stop to consider where that fly may have 
been and the kind of germs he may be carrying, we will see to it 
that he is not allowed to stay near us. 


- 


THIRD QUARTER 109 


It is so much easier to prevent disease than to cure it after it 
comes and when we consider how easily the fly can carry many 
‘kinds of disease germs from the filth and rubbish it has been 
crawling over, we will do all we can to destroy the fly. 


Mosquitoes and Malaria. 


Mosquitoes are directly responsible for malaria as the disease 
can be carried in no other way. The mosquito bites a person 
who has malaria and the germs from the blood of that person 
with malaria enter the mosquito. These malaria germs live and 
multiply in the mosquito and when it bites a second person, it 
leaves these malaria germs in the blood of the person. 

The red corpuscles of a person with malaria are infected with 
a tiny one-celled animal. One of these will live in a red cor- 
puscle for about three days. During this time it has been divid- 
ing and forming new one-celled animals. These crowd the cor- 
puscle so that the wall of the corpuscle breaks and these little 
animals are set free in the blood. At this point the patient has a 
chill which is one of the early symptoms of malaria. These germs 
in the blood enter another red corpuscle and go through the same 
process of breaking the walls of the corpuscle and another chill 
follows. 

Malaria is a dreaded disease. It may not seem to be of such 
a serious nature but it weakens a person and takes away his vital- 
ity so he is easily a victim to other diseases. The best prevention 
for malaria is to destroy the mosquito and then the disease will 
not be spread. 


Life Histories of these Insects. 


Mosquitoes lay their eggs on the surface of the water. In 
less than a day these eggs hatch and from each egg is a small 
insect we commonly call a wriggler. These wrigglers or larva 
grow for about a week and change into the pupa. In about three 
days more, the pupa becomes a full grown mosquito. 

As a larva, the mosquito lives upon small living things he 
finds in the water, but when he becomes a full grown mosquito 


110 THIRD QUARTER 


he gets a greater part of his food from the blood of people or 
other animals. 

Flies breed mostly in horse manure and also in body Wastes 
and any animal or vegetable matter that is beginning to decay. 

The fly, like the mosquito, has four stages of development. 
First is the egg which hatches in about a day, then as the larva 
for five or six days, then the pupa from five to seven days and 
finally the adult fly. 

The female fly lays about one hundred and twenty eggs at a 
time and keeps this up from spring to late fall, sometimes as often 
as four times a season. There may be as many as eight or twelve 
generations in one season so you can see how rapidly they multi- 
ply and the need for the destruction of breeding places. 


Destruction of Breeding Places the Most Effective Way to 
Control These Pests. 


We hear the slogan “swat the fly’ and we are urged to avoid 
places where mosquitoes are found, but the best course to take is 
to destroy their breeding places. We may kill one fly, and it isa 
good thing to do, but think of the great number that are breeding 
in the filth behind the ‘barn and how much more we are accomp- 
lishing if we destroy the breeding places. 

House flies breed so rapidly that we can not hope to do much 
towards eradicating them unless we start at the beginning, destroy 
their eggs before they develop and destroy their breeding places. 
This eradication and destruction is done by careful disposal of all 
garbage and filth that would attract flies. Everything that is 
thrown out that flies swarm around should either be screened 
from the flies or destroyed in some way. 

Mosquitos breed in any place where there is stagnant water. 
It may be in a swampy place in the woods or in a small amount 
of water left in an old broken cup. Water should be drained 
away but if this is not possible, mosquitoes may be killed by pour- 
ing oil on the water. The oil kills the eggs and if the mosquitoes * 
attempt to go through the oil, they are killed. 

It seems rather a simple matter to destroy the breeding places 
of mosquitoes so if we are bothered with them, we may know it is 
due mostly to carelessness on our part. | 


THIRD QUARTER 111 


Control of Malaria and Yellow Fever. 


Malaria and yellow fever have been controlled by the des- 
truction of the mosquito. Striking example of this fact are found 
in the freedom of Havana and Panama from these diseases. 

When the Uuited States took possession of Havana at the 
time of the Cuban War, Havana had a fine harbor but it was filled 
with refuse. Throughout the city were open sewers where in- 
sects and animals could feed. Disease was everywhere and the 
death rate was appalling. The government began investigating 
the sanitary conditions of the city. The harbor was cleaned up 
and a better method for the disposal of sewage used. A new 
water supply was found and the sick were cared for so that dis- 
ease germs were not carried. This general cleaning up destroyed 
the breeding places of the mosquitoes and Havana was made a 
healthy city. 

When the United States began work on the Panama Canal, 
conditions similar to those found at Havana were prevalent. One 
of the first things the United States did was to secure the right 
to enforce health rules. Colonel Gorgas had gone to Havana 
after the Cuban War and made Havana a healthy city so he was 
now called to Panama. He looked after the drainage, paved the 
streets, secured pure drinking water and killed the flies and mo- 
squitoes. After the place was made safe, men from all walks of 
life went there and work began under healthy conditions. 

These two places, Havana and Panama, show what can be 
done in controlling disease by destruction of the mosquito. 


Cleaning Up Campaign or Permanent Habits of Neatness. 


Cleaning up campaigns are of value in communities, but it is 
better to develop permanent habits of neatness and of cleanliness 
about our premises. | 

When the sanitary conditions in a town are bad, a cleaning 
up campaign is a fine thing but people should take a pride in their 
town and try to keep it neat and clean at all times so that spas- 
modic campaigns are not needed. 

The town authorities and the individuals should see to it that 
there is a regular and frequent disposal of garbage and that filth 


112 THIRD QUARTER 


of any kind is not allowed to accumulate. There is no use to 
start a campaign against flies and mosquitoes and leave their 
breeding places untouched. If each one is clean and neat about his 
premises and ordinances are passed to enforce regular and sys- 
tematic cleaning, there will be no need for a cleaning up campaigu. 


Composition Work. 


These compositions have been discussed in the above topics 
under Insects and Sanitation. The teacher can have the pupils 
use the points made and enlarge upon them. 


BOARD OF HEALTH. 
Need for a Board of Health. Duties. 


When people of all classes live together in communities there 
is need for some organization to look after the health of the com- 
munity. There are people who are careless and people who are 
ignorant and unless some one takes the responsibility for their 
welfare, disease will spread among them. 

In cities are police departments organized to protect the 
people from those who disobey the laws and there are fire depart- 
ments to protect the homes of the people from destruction, by fire. 
and health departments to protect the people from disease. When. 
there is sickness, people call a physician to care for them and 
make them well. But we have the health department to protect 
them from disease and keep them well. 

Disease can be spread by carelessness along the streets, in 
the schools and churches, in the moving picture shows and in 
other general meeting places. Disease can be spread by careless 
handling of milk and food and careless disposal of sewage. 

Individuals can see about these things in their own homes 
but since not all can and will do it, it is necessary that we have a 
board of health to protect us from disease. 

It will be easier to understand the duties of the board of 
health if we know something about the organization. We will 
discuss the organization briefly before explaining the duties. 

In most cities the mayor appoints from three to nine men who 


THIRD QUARTER 113 


are to supervise the work of the department of health. Some- 
times there are engineers and lawyers on the board but most of 
the members are physicians. These men organize the work and 
plan what shall be done. They do not give all of their time to the 
work and receive no pay for their services. 

There is usually a health officer who is responsible for carry- 
ing out the plans of the board. He gives his entire time to the 
work and is paid for it. He is usually a physician and has others 
working under him. 

The city health officer works only in the cities but as many 
people live outside in small towns and in the rural districts, it is 
necessary that there shall be some one who will look after their 
welfare, so a state health department is organized similar to the 
city department and their work is carried on all over the state. 

Our national government has organized what is called the 
United States Public Health Service. Their duties are to protect 
the health of all the people and do the things which can be done 
only by the national government. 

The work of the board of health is so important and covers 
so much ground that their duties are numerous. 

We have learned in our study of bacteria that some diseases 
are spread by disease germs going from sick people to the bodies 
of well people and the health department must protect is from 
people having disease germs. People with contageous diseases 
usually call a physician who at once reports the case to the board 
of health. They see to it that precautions are taken to prevent 
the spread of disease and that the one who is sick has the proper 
care. Many people, ill with contageous diseases, are taken at 
once to a hospital where they may get the proper care and not ex- 
pose any one. If they are kept at home a quarantine sign is 
- placed on the-house and no one is supposed to leave the house and 
no outsider should go into the house. 

Evevry effort is made to keep contagious diseases out of the 
schools, for often times when a disease starts in the school most 
of the children take it. Ifa child in a family of several children 
comes down with diphtheria, the house is quarantined at once, 
and the children all kept there or those who do not have the dis- 
ease taken to some other house but in that case these other child- 


114 THIRD QUARTER 


ren must be kept in until it is determined whether they are going 
to take the disease. If the child who has diphtheria was sick at 
school before he knew he had the disease, the children at school 
should be carefully watched and their throats examined every 
day. 


In some cases the Schick test is used. A very little of the 
diptheria toxin is injected into the arm. If the person is immune 
from diphtheria, the toxin has almost no effect but if the person is 
not immune, the poison makes the skin a little red and inflamed. 
Those who are found susceptible to diphtheria should be made 
immune by the toxin—antitoxin treatment then there is no danger 
of contracting the disease. In some cities the health department 
has what may be called infant welfare stations to reduce infant 
mortality. Here mothers, who cannot afford a physician, may 
take their babies and be told just how to care for them, and how 
and what to feed them. If necessary the stations provide food 
for the children. 


The health department is of valuable assistance to physicians. 
The department usually has laboratories where the physician can 
send samples of blood from the patient or some of the microbes 
from the body and have them examined to determine the disease 
the patient has. These laboratories also examine thé water sup- 
ply and the milk from the different dairies to determine whether 
they are pure. 


The health department watches the food that is sold in the 
stores and inspects bakeries, meat markets and such places. 


The state health department does work similar to that done 
in the cities except that its regulations apply to all the state. It 
works with the city departments to proect people’s health. 


The United States Public Health Service works with these 
other departments in protecting the health of the people in the - 
states but a very important other work that it does is to prevent 
diseases from foreign countries from being brought to this coun- 
try. All of these departments are studying to see what they can do 
to prevent disease and each assists the other in this work. 


THIRD QUARTER 115 


An important duty of these health departments is to collect 
statistics. Among these are the records of all births and deaths 
and many details in connection with the deaths to show facts 
relative to disease. 

Their duties seem almost endless but this discussion will give 
you an idea of the work they are to do and the great value to our 
welfare of a board of health. 


Co-operation with Board of Health. 


Good citizens are always ready to help the government in 
enforcing its laws and regulations. People should do everything 
they can to co-operate with the board of health in its effort to 
protect people from disease. The board can quarantine a patient 
and do everything possible to prevent the patient from. spreading 
the disease but if members of the family are careless and out- 
siders go into a house where there is a quarantine sign, the work 
of the board of health will come to naught. There is need of a 
hearty co-operation between the people and the board of health. 


Isolation of Small Pox Patients. 


Before the discovery of vaccination, smallpox was a disease 
much dreaded. It was very contageous. The patient was often 
loathsome when he was sick and often disfigured afterwards. 
Smallpox was so prevalent that people expected to have it. It 
sometimes caused blindness and there were many deaths from it. 
We still see some people who are pock-marked but not nearly so 
many as years ago. 

Vaccination has greatly reduced the number of cases of 
smallpox but when it does occur, the disease is of such a serious 
nature that the patient should be isolated so the disease is not 
carried to others. 


Quarantine and its Value. 


Quarantine means the isolation of any person having or even 
suspected of having a contagious disease so that the disease may 
not be spread. People may be quarantined when they are exposed 
to the disease and kept under quarantine during disease and until 
there is no chance of carrying the disease to others. 


116 THIRD QUARTER 


People may be isolated by being sent to a hospital, by having 
the whole house quarantined, or by being kept in one room. 

The idea of quarantine is to keep the patient away from other 
people. 


Good Citizenship and Strict Observance of Quarantine; Vac- 
cination and Its Value. 


A good citizen will obey all laws whether he wants to or not. 
If a man with his family is quarantined for scarlet fever or some 
other serious disease, as a law abiding citizen, he should keep a 
strict observance of quarantine and not allow any one to leave the 

house or outsiders to come in until it is safe to do so. 
| Vaccination was discovered in 1796 by Dr. Jenner. The 
word vacca means a cow. Cows have a disease called cowpox 
which is similar to smallpox and the matter formed in this disease 
of the cow, when put under the skin of people keep people from 
getting smallpox even though they are exposed to it. 

When we know what a horrible disease smallpox is and when 
we read what vaccination has done to lessen the number of cases 
of smallpox, there is no question as to its value. 

Vaccination for smallpox has been used more than vaccina- 
tion for other diseases so we understand more about its use for 
smallpox but physicians are now vaccinating for other diseases 
such as typhoid, diphtheria, and scarlet fever and vaccination will 
doubtless prove much more valuable as time goes on. 


Why the Board of Health Has a Right to Enforce Vaccination. 
Tell About the Danger of Infection from Outside in 
Vaccination. 


The board of health has a right to enforce vaccination just 
as much as our government has a right to enforce any law. The 
board of health is working for the good of the people and if vac- 
cination has so greatly reduced smallpox, the board should have 
the right to enforce vaccination. In a great many of the schools 
vaccination is required. A few children after vaccination may 
have some trouble with infection if they are careless but probably 


THIRD QUARTER 117 


the trouble from all the vaccination in a dozen schools would not 
equal that of one case of smallpox. 

There is always danger from infection in any. wound. If 
disease germs come in contact with the vaccination scratch, in- 
fection results but if the wound is kept clean and properly cared 
for, there is very little danger. 


Vaccination is Safe if the Wound is Properly Cared for. 


Vaccination has been so universally and so successfully car- 
ried out that we need have no fear of it if proper vaccine is used 
and the arm properly cared for. The wound however should 
have the proper care or it may become infected like any other 
wound. Some physicians have the wound covered with sterile 
gauze which must be changed frequently. Other physicians ask 
that nothing be put over the wound but that the clothing which 
covers it be clean at all times. In either case the important thing 
is to keep the wound clean and try not to bruise the arm. A good 
scab should be formed over the sore and this scab comes off of its 
own free will when the wound heals. 


DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE, 


Importance of Proper Desposal of Sewage. 


If we are interested in the health of the people, one of the 
“most important things to consider is the proper disposal of sew- 
age. Rubbish, garbage, and all body wastes are breeding places 
of disease germs and should have attention. 

This question is usually given more attention in the cities 
than in the rural districts. This is because so many people live 
together in cities and as a result garbage and waste accumula- 
tions are greater, making it important that much care be used to 
protect the people. The sewage problem for the housewife in the 
city is simple for sewers are provided by the cities. There is 
usually an underground sewer in every street and every house is 
connected with it. All wastes from the bath room and kitchen 
sink goes into this. The garbage is kept in a covered pail and ‘this 
is cared for by the city, so the problem is rather a simple one for 
the city housewife. 


118 THIRD QUARTER 


The problems of the small town or rural housewife will now 
be considered. By way of illustration, let us suppose Mrs. Jones - 
lives in a country town where people are not crowded but where 
she has neighbors on each side of her. She throws her garbage 
out behind the barn. It is out of the way there and can not be 
seen from the house. This garbage will form a breeding place 
for flies and will supply enough for her and all her neighbors. 
She thinks dish water is harmless so throws it out over the yard. 
If the water sinks into the ground, there is not much danger — 
though there will likely be odors from it, but if some of it happens 
to form a small pool Mrs. Jones will soon supply her neighbors 
with mosquitoes as well as flies. The Jones may have an outdoor 
toilet which can cause an endless amount of harm. | 

A modern bathroom is now built so it is attractive and most 
sanitary but sometimes it is not possible to have a bath room in a 
small town with no city water. 

If an out door toilet is necessary it should be given the great- 
est care. Body wastes often contain many harmful bacteria and 
careless disposal of these wastes may cause the spread of disease. 
Out door toilets should be carefully screened. Lime should be 
mixed with earth and used to cover the waste material. Care 
should be taken that no well is near enough to be contaminated. 

Many times city people, returning from a country vacation 
come down with typhoid fever simply because of carelessness in 
the disposal of sewage in the country. 

Often country homes have their own individual plants for 
water supply and for sewage disposal. If properly constructed, 
these are ideal but if people can not afford these, then they should 
take the greatest possible care in the method of sewage disposal. 


Dangerous Germs Present in Sewage. Means of Disposal. 
Pollution of Streams by Sewage. 


Sewage is full of germs and most of them are dangerous. If 
sewage is properly cared for, there is no great danger but when 
people carelessly throw it out, there is danger. Open sewers are 
not found so much now but they are always dangerous. They 
carry sewage that is bacteria laden. Flies and mosquitoes have 


THIRD QUARTER TLS 


access to this and feed upon it and scatter the germs. Dogs and 
rats also have access to it. Sewage in most any form carries 
disease germs and should never be carelessly disposed of. 

Sewage should always be disposed of promptly. Wastes 
from the bath room and kitchen sink should be run into the sewer 
where the city cares for it, and garbage should be collected regu- 
larly and taken away in covered wagons. 

There are different ways of disposal of sewage and some of 
these will be discussed : 

In the country or in small towns, individuals must be respon- 
sible for the disposal of sewage. It is a good plan to burn as 
much of it as possible but all can not be burned. Many have 
their own cess pools but these need careful attention. The main 
thing is to see to it that it is not built near a well that is used for 
drinking water. If no well is nearer than seventy-five feet, it 
is comparatively safe, for in‘that distance the water from the 
cess pool would be filtered sufficiently so no danger would come 
from it. 

In some places in the West they have what are called sewage 
farms. The sewage is taken to these farms and scattered over 
the soil. In this are many bacteria but not all.of them are harm- 
ful. There are some that cause the oxygen of the air to unite 
with the animal and vegetable tissues. When the sewage is scat- 
tered over the soil these bacteria begin their work, and the soil is 
made fertile and can be used for growing fruit and grain, but is 
unfit for growing some kinds of vegetables. 

Cities have various ways of disposing of their sewage. An 
ideal way is to burn all rubbish and refuse. Some cities have 
plants for this purpose. 

Some cities aerate the sewage and then run it into a stream. 
Solids are removed, and the liquids sprayed into the air and then 
thrown over a layer of coke and after seeping through this, run 
into a stream. 

Other cities have large septic tanks where the water is al- 
lowed to seep through. These tanks are built of brick or con- 
crete ‘and are water tight. The tanks are divided into compart- 
ments through which the sewage moves slowly. The organic 


120 THIRD QUARTER 


wastes are broken up and a kind of bacteria which can live only 
away from the air, helps to take the wastes away. Mud forms 
at the bottom of the tank and this must be cleaned away but only 
when quantities of it have collected. After this process, it is 
harmless and can be run into a stream without polluting the 
stream. 


Sometimes the oil and grease are taken out to be used in the 
making of soap and the remainder is used for fertilizer. 


For the sake of health, all sewage should be disposed of in 
some efficient and sanitary way. 


Means of disposal of sewage have been fully discussed in the 
preceeding topic. Carelessness in any of these, means when the 
sewage is disposed of near a stream, will pollute that stream. 


Danger of Obtaining Water from Small Streams in Thickly 
Populated Regions. 


The problem of water supply is an important one. Water is 
so esential for drinking purposes as well as for many other uses. 
If public health is to be considered, we must be sure that our 
water supply does not come from some contaminated stream. 
There is always danger in obtaining water from small streams in 
thickly populated regions. Suppose a town gets its water from 
a stream that is crowded on both sides with small towns. A 
reasonable amount of sewage may be thrown into a stream and 
the stream be able to purify it but if there are people living all 
along the stream, so much sewage would be thrown in that the 
water would be unfit for use. 


Though there might be regulations forbidding people to 
throw anything in the river, we can not depend on all people. If 
there are many living along the stream there is bound to be some 
who would not obey the regulation. If such an ideal condition 
could exist, where no rubbish or refuse of any kind was thrown 
in, enough would be thrown on the ground and into cess pools 
to seep into the stream so the only safe way would be to see to it 
that the water is filtered or purified in some way before it is used. 


_ 


THIRD QUARTER 121 


“Swimming Holes’’ and Polluted Streams. Danger of Disease 
Transmission from Swimming Pools. 


Polluted streams are not safe for swimming holes. If the 
water in the stream is filled with impurities persons going swim- 
ming in these places would come in contact with some of the im- 
purities, and disease germs from the polluted stream. could easily 
enter their bodies. 

Swimming pools should have strict regulations with regard to 
the water in the pool. The water should either be changed fre- 
quently or so filled that the water is changing constantly. Sup- 
pose a boy who is coming down with some contagious disease 
would go into the pool. He would give off disease germs and if 
the water were not changed, other boys would come in contact 
with the germs. If the water is changing constantly the danger 
is greatly lessened: 


Flies and Sewage Desposal; Contamination of Milk, and other 
Foods from Exposed Sewage. 


The greatest care should be taken in disposing of sewage so 
that it is not left where flies can reach it. 

Some housewives think if garbage is thrown out of sight, 
some distance from the house, it will do no harm, but no matter 
where it is thrown, it will soon decay and be a breeding place for 
flies. They, in turn, will carry germs and filth back to the house. 
. Sewage that is thrown out begins at once to decay and give 
off harmful germs. If the sewage is near the house, the germs 
may be carried through the air to the food and milk and contam- 
inate them or if the sewage is thrown some distance away the 
germs may be carried to the food by means of flies. Our food 
should be kept as free from disease germs as possible and exposed 
sewage should be kept far away. | 


FIRST AID. 


Importance of Knowing What To Do in Accidents and Emer- 
gencies. Self Control in Emergancies. 


We expect physicians to know what to do in illness but when 
accidents and emergencies occur, we should know what to do. 


122 THIRD QUARTER 


The first step is to summon a physician and then care for the in- 
jured one as best we can until the physician arrives. Common 
sense and a first aid kit would be valuable to have at such a time. 
We must not do anything that would harm the person but we 
should relieve him as best we can until help comes. 


It is usually the unexpected that happens, and when emer- 
gencies come, we do not always know the best course to take. 
There may be an accident in which some one is hurt and we do 
not know the nature of his injury. If we get excited and lose 
self-control we are of no use to the injured one and may even 
do hinr harm by our excitement. The first thing to do when an 
accident occurs is to gain control of ourselves and then set about 
to do all we can for the one who has been injured until some one 
comes who can, with better knowledge and skill, take the case in 
hand. If we have self control when the accident occurs and 
later when the physician arrives, we may be of more value in the 
case then we would be if we knew much about first aid but had 
no self control. 


First Aid Work Should be Strongly Emphasized. 


I¢veryone should know something about first aid work. Since 
the World War people have taken much more interest in “First 
Aid” than ever before and courses have been given in it so that 
people generally know something about the subject. A teacher 
who has a room full of children under her care, will find her 
knowledge of first aid valuable and whether she studies into the 
subject to any extent, she should at least know some of the more 
simple rules. . 


Suppose it is winter and the school children are coasting 
down a hill in front of the school house. Two sleds run into 
each other and a small boy comes in with a cut on his arm. The 
first thing to do is to cleanse the wound. Your hands should be 
clean but even then you should never touch the wound. If the 
wound is not deep, it may be washed with pure soap and water 
that has been boiled though cooled so it will not burn the skin. 
After the wound is washed, you might pour some tincture of 


THIRD QUARTER 123 


Iodine into it and cover with a dressing of sterilized gauze. Over 
this place a bandage held in place by adhesive tape. The greatest 
care should be exercised so that the part of the sterilized dressing 
has touched nothing else before it is put over the wound. If you 
have no sterilized gauze on hand, a clean cloth may be sterilized 
by ironing it with a hot iron, or boiling cloth in water and then 
wringing it out. Care should be taken in dressing any cut or 
open sore that nothing which has germs on it, touch the wound 
or there is danger of infection. 


124 FOURTH QUARTER 


FOURTH QUARTER. 


The course of study says, “The outline for this quarter 1s 
gwen under Science and Agriculture. Therefore, the teacher 
must see to it that pupils review the topics in Science and’ 
Agriculture that has a bearing upon Health Education. Do this 
before you take up the work on Foods, etc. 


Human Carriers of Disease. 


During our first quarter, we had a brief review of our bodily 
structure, and the relation of human health to our environment. 
During the second quarter, we studied enemies to our health and 
well being. In the third quarter, we discussed fully the questions 
of milk and water supply, also food sources and care in handling. 
In our fourth quarter, we will take up more fully the question of 
our food, and the study of our five senses—touch, sight, smell, 
hearing and taste. 

Some cynic has said that food is man’s best friend or his 
worst enemy. This is true. The human body can not retain its 
efficiency for any great length of time without food, yet the con- 
tention of many physicians is equally true—that we dig our 
graves with our teeth. 

The word food may be applied to any iba either 
liquid or solid which nourishes the body. Wowever, the word 
in its strictest application cannot apply to everything eaten, for 
many things taken into the stomach are not only of no benefit to 
bodily nourishment, but are genuinely harmful. Ordinarily 
when we mention food, we think of anything which is suitable to 
eat. That which is not used in body nourishment is waste, and 
as such is cast out. 

The general term used to describe the use of food by the 
body is nutrition. 

Nutrition in its broadest sense is a very comprehensive term 
and includes all the changes that take place in our bodies from the 


a 


FOURTH QUARTER 125 


time we take a bite of anything until that substance 1s cast out of 
our bodies as waste matter. Therefore, we can readily see that 
all the processes of digestion, absorption, circulation, assimilation, 
respiration (as concerned with oxidation) and excretion are in- 
cluded in this one term. 

These six processes may be divided into the upbuilding and 
destructive processes. The first four belongs to the upbuilding 
or creative class. While the last two are destructive or tearing 
down processes. 


Two Functions of Food. 


The body has been compared to an engine, but unlike an 
engine, it requires food or fuel for a twofold purpose—the first 
to furnish heat or energy and the second to repair waste all over 
the body. The first need we have all felt on a cold day. When 
hungry we grow cold much quicker, as well as tired much sooner. 
In the second place, the body, unlike other engines, repairs its own 
worn out parts, and herein lies the second necessity for food. To 
this latter class may be added the foods needed by young children 
which not only repair the body’s waste, but also cause growth and 
development. 


Classes of Foods. 


There are four distinct classes of foods: 
Proteids or nitrogenous or albuminous. 
Carbohydrates or starches and sugars. 
The fats and oils. 

Inorganic or minerals. 


cores wa 


Proteids or Nitrogenous or Albuminous. 


The proteids, nitrogenous or albuminous foods supply nitro- 
gen which builds up and repairs the tissues of the body. Protein 
is found in several forms each differing in composition. Just 
how the different forms supply nitrogen suited to different bodily 
needs is still a matter of discussion among scientists. For this 
reason it is safest and best to supply protein to the body in various 
forms and seems to explain the general craving in man for a 
mixed diet. 


126 FOURTH QUARTER 


Articles of food from both the animal and vegetable king- 
doms contain protein. We find it in fish, milk, eggs, meats; 
cereals, legumes, and nuts. Protein foods besides building up 
the tissues also supplies energy for the body. But in order that 
our protein diet may largely be energy producing, fats, sugars, 
and starches must be limited. 


Carbohydrates or Starches and Sugars. 


The carbohydrates are so called because in this class of food 
we find the two chemical elements, carbon and hydrogen. The 
type of this group is sugar and starch, and although we could not 
live on carbohydrates alone, we really need a larger amount of this 
kind of food than of proteids. 

The use of the carbohydrates is chiefly to give us force Se 
heat. It is quite sure that if anyone consumes the albuminous 
foods, together with the carbohydrates, they are very liable to 
grow fat. 

In the carbohydrate class of foods, we find the starches and 
sugars. Most of our vegetables are very rich in sugar; such as 
sugar cane, the beet, and the ripe fruits, such as the grape, apricot 
and plum. Sugar, like starch, is a heat producer, but it is very 
unlike it in taste. 

There are four different kinds of sugar, but in spite of the 
difference in their taste, all are equally valuable to the body as 
food. Beet and cane sugar are the ones most commonly found 
on the market, but a cheaper form, known as glucose or grape 
sugar, is often used for adulterating purposes. It is found in 
fruits and is less sweet than cane or beet sugar. Milk sugar is 
another form and is found in milk alone. Starch and sugar 
while very unlike in appearance and taste, have much in common. 
The starch that is found in green fruits is changed to sugar by 
ripening, and just this same process takes place in the stomach 
when starch is digested. Potatoes and cereals furnish the athe 
part of our starch. 


The Fats and Oils. 


The fats and oils constitute the third class of foods. They 
are found in both the animal and vegetable kingdoms, 


FOURTH QUARTER 127 


Butter, lard, and tallow are made from animal fats, while 
cotton seed oil and olive oil are products of the vegetable king- 
dom. Some of the oils, like lard, become solid when removed 
from the heat, but others, like olive oil, are in a liquid state. The 
fats are chiefly useful in maintaining the heat of the body, for it 
is well known that the inhabitants of northern and cold climates 
are accustomed to consume enormous quantities of fatty material. 
As has been said, the Eskimo in his snow house enjoys a tallow 
candle with all the relish that his Hindu brother would enjoy a 
lucious ripe banana. Besides furnishing heat for the body, the 
fats also furnish two and one-half times as much energy as either 
protein or carbohydrate food. 


Inorganic or Mineral Foods; Water, Salts, Etc. 


In addition to the other classes of food, there is another very 
necessary class. This is known as the inorganic or mineral foods. 
In this class we may include water, salt, lime, magnesia and other 
forms of minerals used in building up the body. All of our foods 
are composed largely of water, and if it were made perfectly free 
from the water it would be surprising to see how greatly the bulk 
would be diminished. Water justly ranks as a food because it 
enters into the composition of every tissue, even the bones and 
teeth. . The bodily temperature is regulated by it, and in all mus- 
cular and nervous work it plays a most important part. It has 
been estimated that two-thirds of the entire body—enough if 
rightly arranged—to drown a person and since it is constantly 
passing from the body as excrement of the skin and kidneys, and 
from our lungs when we breathe, one can readily see how neces- 
sary it is that the supply be constant and pure. When our foods 
appear on the table, they are about one-half water, and yet they 
cannot supply all the body needs. For this reason, we must drink 
between meals. But as water is one of the best known sources 
of disease, the greatest care should be exercised in seeing that the 
water supply is free from all contamination. Vegetables are one 
of our greatest sources of water supply. Turnips are very little 
else than water, as are cabbage, lettuce, and radishes. 

Salts and most mineral foods are taken as condiments largely 
and are absolutely indispensable to the nourishment of the body. 


128 FOURTH QUARTER 


They perform two very valuable functions—body building and 
aiding in the chemical reactions. Among the many kinds used by 
the system, the most important are calcium (lime) salts, which 
are valuable for bone formation. Milk, eggs, cereals, and vege- 
tables contain these in abundance. ‘This class of salts are espec- 
ially valuable to growing children, and great care should be used 
to see that children’s diet is rich in this class of foods. 

The abnormal appetitie which some children show in eating 
chalk, plaster or wood is due to a lack of calcium. This lack also 
results in small bones and poor teeth. 

Sodium chloride or common salt is found in every tissue of 
the body except the enamel of the teeth, hence is an important 
factor in our food supply. So strong is the demand of the body 
for salt that animals of the forests will travel for miles to places 
where they may obtain salt—known as “salt lick,’ and in some 
parts of Africa where salt is scarce, men will barter their children 
for even a little of this substance. 

Salts of iron are another very important salt found in our 
body. These are found in nearly all foods, and beef, oatmeal, 
eggs and some of the green vegetables are especially rich in them. 
Iron is very important in the blood, for it makes oxygen carrying 
possible in the hemoglobin. 

In addition to these mentioned there are other salts of minor 
importance found in the body. Among these might be mentioned 
salts of potash. These minor salts aid in many ways, such as 
giving hardness to the teeth and bones and in various chemical 
reactions in the body, some of which are not clearly understood 
by scientists. 


Sources of Proteid and Simple Tests for It. 


In reviewing the four classes of foods, we find that proteids 
are obtained largely from animal foods. They are found in 
their most concentrated form in lean meat and eggs. Gluten 
in flour and casein in milk also furnish important varieties of 
this same food. There are many simple tests which may be 
made to show this class of food. Take the white of an egg; 
pour boiling water over it, and note with what rapidity it “sets” 


FOURTH QUARTER 129 


or coagulates. Or, take a bit of the same white, or tiny piece 
of lean meat and drop it on a hot stove. Note the characteristic 
offensive odor with which it burns. 


Sources of Carbohydrates and a Simple Test for It. 

The carbohydrates constitute the starch and sugar class, 
and as has been said, are obtained largely from vegetables. The 
sugar in milk—known as milk sugar—is one very important 
exception to this rule. 

One of the simplest tests made for starch is made with 
iodine solution. The article to be tested is simply touched with 
the solution. If starch is present, a blue or purplish color will 
appear. 


Sources of Fats and Oils and Simple Tests for Them. 

Fats and oils are obtained both from the vegetable and ani- 
mal kingdoms. Lard, butter, and tallow are animal products, 
while cotton seed and olive oil, as well as the oils obtained from 
various nuts, are of the vegetable kingdom. 

There are many simple tests for fats and oils. Take a 
piece of butter or suet, drop it on a hot stove and the rapidity 
with which it ignites shows its only nature. Or, take nut meats, 
mash them on paper and note the grease marks that remain. 


Sources of the Inorganic or Mineral Foods and Tests for It, 


_ The inorganic or mineral foods are taken as condiments 
largely, but are also found in almost every article of our daily 
diet. , 

If water is boiled until none of it remains in the pan, a 
white sediment will be noticed showing that lime and various 
other minerals had been held in partial solution in the water. 

The tests for minerals in the foods are rather more compli- 
cated in the main than the tests for other food elements, the 
results of such tests depending upon certain chemical reactions 
and therefor not easily performed by the average pupil. 


How the Different Foods Serve the Body. 


The chief uses of the proteids or nitrogenous or albuminous 
foods are to build up the body and repair waste of the tissues. 


130 FOURTH QUARTER 


The carbohydrates or sugars and starches are to give us 
force and heat. 

The fats and oils are really the fuel of the body, for they 
furnish us with the means of maintaining our bodily temperature. 
For this reason, this class of food is much more necessary to 
the dwellers in cold regions than to the inhabitants of the warm 
climates. 

Mineral foods have various uses in the body. Some of 
them give hardness to the teeth and bones, others aid in the pro- 
cesses of digestion, while the various uses of water by the human 
system vary from helping eliminate waste products to oxidation 
of the blood. 


Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Meat. 


Meats include the flesh of all animals used as food by human 
beings, but only. the more commonly used will be considered 
here. These are beef, pork, mutton, fowl, and fish. Meats are 
most important and a generally used source of protein. They are 
rich in albumen and also contain fat and mineral matters. An 
ordinary serving of meat once a day is all that is necessary. 
Indeed, too rich a diet of meat throws too great a strain upon 
the digestive arrangement, and may lead to serious bodily dis- 
order, such as hardening of the arteries, kidney trouble, and seri- 
ous intestinal diseases. Therefore, a part of our supply of pro- 
tein should be obtained from eggs and milk. Gelatin and albumen 
are the principal proteins found in meat. The former is extracted 
from the connective tissue by the long slow application of heat 
with moisture, while the latter is hardened by intense heat. The 
protein from meat is more readily digested and absorbed by the 
body than is the protein from the vegetable kingdom. Perhaps 
this is due to the fact that it is more similar to the body-protein 
structure. The cuts of meats from the same beef or hog vary 
in composition. Those muscles which are exercised slightly will 
have more fat than lean, and thus the composition will vary. 
Analysis of lean beef has shown it to contain 70% of water, 
21.3% of protein, 79% of fat, 1.1% of ash and it has a food 
value of 730 calories per pound. Dried beef varies somewhat— 


FOURTH QUARTER 131 


having less water, 54.3%; more protein, 30%; less fat, 6.5%; 
a slight trace of carbohydrates, 4/10% ; a greater amount of ash, 
9.1% ; and greater food value in calories, 840 per pound. 

From the above it will be seen that all meat contains a 
relatively large per cent of water, and while it makes it easier 
to swallow than if it were dry, the water contained in meat has 
not greater food value than water found anywhere else, hence 
the greater amount of water found in any cut of meat, the less 
its food value. For this reason, fish and oysters are less nutri- 
tious than other meats. As a general rule, the more fat on a 
cut of meat, the less water it will contain. A lean cut of meat 
will or may contain 75% of water, while a fat cut from the same 
animal may contain 50% or even less. 

All meat contains more or less fat. Very lean meat, like 
dried beef, may contain as little as 3%, while very fat pork con- 
tains about 90%. Fat is a very valuable constituent in meat, for 
it is the most concentrated form in which the fuel constituents 
of food are found. It has a fuel value of 2% times that of pro- 
tein or the carbohydrates. Lean meat has about 20% of protein 
for its weight about five times as much as milk. The flesh of 
wild fowl has generally more protein than beef, but fish has less. 
Meats contain but a small quantity of carbohydrates—only a 
fraction of 1%, and that mainly in the form of glycogen or 
muscle sugar. Meats contain some mineral matters (ash) the 
most wmportant of which are phosphates of lime, potash, and 
magnesia. 


_ Proportion of Each Class.of Food Found in Milk and Eggs. 


Milk and eggs are extremely important foods, especially in 
the diet of children or sick people. Milk contains no starch, but 
is rich in milk sugar, while eggs contain almost not carbohy- 
drates. Both eggs and milk may be taken without cooking, but 
for most people eggs are rendered more palatable by cooking, 
while because of the possible bacteria it may contain, milk is 

, also rendered safer by boiling. Eggs and milk, like meats and 
all foods rich in protein, should be cooked slowly and at a low 
temperature in order that they may be soft and easily digested. 

* By test, milk has been found to have 87% of water, 3.5% pro- 


132 FOURTH QUARTER 


tein, 4.4% fat, 5% carbohydrates, .7% ash, with a food value of 
325 calories per pound. Cheese has 34.2% water, 25.9% pro- 
tein, 33.7% fat, 24% carbohydrates, 3.8% ash, and 1.950 cal- 
ories food value per pound. Butter has 11% water, 1% protein, 
85% fat, 3% ash, with the highest value in calories per pound of 
any food, 3,605. Eggs have 73.7% water, 14.8 % protein, 10.5 
fat, 1% ash, and 720 calories per pound food value. 


Milk, the “perfect food,” contains all the food elements— 
water, fat, sugar, mineral, and albumen. It will support life 
longer than any other known food. Milk may be the chief diet 
of a child until its first teeth come, but as it does not furnish 
enough force-producing material, this must be supplied by 
Starchy foods, such as bread or crackers. Often milk is a source 
of danger in that it holds and transmits certain disease germs. 
For this reason, great care should be used in selecting our dairy. 
After the milk is brought to our homes, absolute cleanliness must 
be observed in caring for it. It is much safer to scald all milk 
before it 1s used. Milk that has been boiled is not so easily 
digested as that which has been merely scalded. The fat of milk 
is really the most important constituent of milk since it is the 
source of butter and is found in large quantities in cheese. The 
fat of milk known as butter fat consists of several different kinds 
of fat, the principle ones being stearin, palmitin and olein. These 
are the same that make up the bulk of meat fats—suet, tallow, 
lard, etc. Lactose or milk sugar is the chief carbohydrate found 
in milk. This sugar varies in amount from 466% of the total 
milk. The manufacture of milk sugar from whey 1s an import- 
ant industry, as it 1s much used by chemists in the making of 
powders, tablets, etc. The ash in milk is mainly phosphates, and 
chlorides of soda, potash, and lime. - 


Protein and fat are the chief nutrients in eggs. Water and 
ash are also found. The white contains about twice as much 
water as the yolk, and less protein. Their water content as a 
whole is much the same as that of lean meat. The chief ash is 
common salt. Sulphur is found in the egg albumen. This is the 
substance when decomposed that gives spoilt eggs their offensive 
odor. 


FOURTH QUARTER 133 


Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Vegetables. 


Vegetables, except peas, beans and other legumes, are usu- 
ally poor in fat and protein, but are valuable as nutrients, largely 
because of their carbohydrates. Starch, cellulose and small 
amounts of sugar form the main carbohydrates elements. They 
are also rich in mineral elements, containing relatively large pro- 
portions of these. As vegetables are for the most part one-half 
water, their food value is small compared to their bulk. Tha 
legumes—beans, peas, lentils, and cowpeas, contain a much 
greater amount of protein than other vegetables, and most of 
them are also rich in carbohydrates. They are also rich in iron, 
calcium, salts, potassium and phosphorus. Next to the cereals 
the legumes are the most valuable and most widely used of all 
vegetable foods. They are found in all climates. The chief 
legumes used in the U. S. are peas, beans, and peanuts. Lentils 
are raised only to a limited extent in the southwest, although they 
are much more widely known in Europe and Asia. 

Should we judge of a food by chemical analysis alone, we 
should be forced to give legumes the highest place among foods, 
since they contain more protein than even the best cuts of meat, 
but the ease and completeness with which a food is digested must 
be taken into consideration also. When these are considered. 
legumes do not rank so high, for their digestion is less com- 
plete, and in the case of persons not engaged in active work, is 
often attended by distress due to fermentation in the intestines. 


Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Cereals. 

Cereals vary as to the proportion of nutrients, but carbo- 
hydrates predominate in them all. The carbohydrates are mainly 
in the form of starch. These starch grains are stored up in cells 
whose walls are tough cellulose. 

Much of our cereals are products of wheat, corn, oats, and 
rye. Wheat is mainly ground into flour and comes to the table 
as bread or pastries. There are several varieties of flour, depend- 
ing upon how much of the wheat grain is used. The whole 
grain is used in making Graham flour. The food value of Gra- 
ham flour is greater than that of white flour, because of the 
presence of the growing germ which is high in fat, compared to 


134 FOURTH QUARTER 


the rest of the wheat grain. Jt also contains a larger amount of 
valuable minerals. Pastry flour is made from winter wheat, 
which contains less gluten than spring wheat, which is used for 
bread making flour. Different specimens of the same grain may 
vary greatly in composition. This variation is caused by the 
variety, soil, climate, an‘| season in which they grow. While the 
different cereals resemble each other closely, and are all rich 
im carbohydrates, they have certain differences which separate 
them. Corn is rich in fats compared to the others, while oats 
are rich in both protein and fats. Rice has little fat and little 
crude fiber, while both rye and wheat have a high proportion of 
protein and some small amount of fat. Oats furnishes the best 
balanced proportion of all grains, while wheat ranks next, and 
corn third. 

For many children cereal foods are especially valuable. 
This is not alone because of their food value, but for the milk 
and sugar with which they are served. Cereals are also, because 
of their easy digestion, valuable for old people’s diet. In cookery 
for invalids they are almost invaluable, but taken as a class, 
cereals (breakfast foods) are not as economical a diet for hearty 
working people as are grains served in the form of breads and 
pastries. 


Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Fruits. 


While most of our fruits contain starch and sugar, accord- 
ing to their bulk, they perhaps form less of real value to our 
diet than most other of our foods. They are, however, useful 
to stimulate the appetite, and give a relish to our more substantial 
foods. They serve to give a piquancy to our heavy diet, and by 
their acid tend to overcome some of the evil effects of over eating 
of foods rich in fats and proteins. They are rich in minerals, 
and after drying are much richer in grape than other sugars. 
This is especially true of dates, raisins, figs, and prunes, which 
contain from 50% to 75% more sugar after drying. Not only 
are the acids-and salts of benefit to the diet, but the bulk of 
water and cellulose or woody fiber which they contain are of 
great benefit to stimulate the work of digestion. Some of the 
dried fruits as well as fruit juices are valuable because of their 


FOURTH QUARTER 135 


laxative properties. Ripe fruits contain much more sugar than 
green, for in the process of ripening the starches and other car- 
bohydrates are changed into sugar. 


Proportion of Each Class of Food Found in Beverages. 


One of the peculiarities of the human appetite is that while 
most of the water we drink is taken in the form of beverages, 
we have no natural instinct or appetite for them. No child was 
ever born with a natural liking for beer or whisky and very few 
children like tea or coffee at first. 

It seems that nature has attempted to show us that such 
drinks are by no means necessary or even beneficial to the human 
system. The most commonly used of these amusement food 
are tea, coffee, and cocoa. They have an agreeable taste, mildly 
stimulate the nervous system and while moderately used by 
grown up persons, seldom do much harm. 

Tea is made from the green leaves of a shrub grown in 
China, Japan, and Southern India. Coffee is made from the 
seeds of a shrub or low tree. Much of our coffee comes from 
South America. Cocoa is made from the bean-like seeds of a 
small tree growing in the tropics. Unless made with milk, cocoa 
contains very little real food value. The effect of these three 
drinks depends upon a spicy tasting substance known as caffein. 
Unless taken to excess the mild stimulating effect produced 
upon the nervous system and heart may be beneficial, but if 
taken in large quantities without other food, may lead to serious 
disorders of the digestive system. The most harmful substance 
found in these beverages is tannin, but this will not be found 
unless the tea or coffee has been boiled and then left standing 
on the grounds. However, these drinks form a very small part 
of a nourishing diet and for children or young people are far 
better if left alone. | 

Among the amusement drinks which we cannot class as 
harmless are wine, ale, beer, whisky, brandy, and rum. Wine 
is produced by yeast bacteria working in a vat of grape juice. 
It attacks the fruit sugar contained in the juice, splits it up into 
alcohol and carbon dioxide, so that it becomes bubbly and frothy 
with gas. Beer, ale, and cider are made from crushed barley or 


136 FOURTH QUARTER 


wheat and apples, which have been set to work by the yeast 
germ. 

Whisky, brandy, and rum are made from distilling the mix- 
ture of water and alcohol made from grain or fruit juice. 

Alcohol, if properly classed, would be put among the drugs 
and not among the foods. The greatest amount of alcohol which 
one could safely consume would supply less than one-tenth of 
the total fuel food necessary. Its effects on the body is a dead- 
ening one—much as morphine, ether, or chloral. The bodily con- 
dition may remain the same, but it deadens the nerves to any 
sense of discomfort from which one may be suffering. 

At the present there are on the market many coffee and tea 
substitutes, but as these are for the most part made from cereals, 
they might have been properly discussed under that heading. 
The manufacturers claim that they make a harmless, satisfying 
drink, and are equal in flavor to coffee and tea, but this, the real 
coffee lover strenuously denies. The real food value of most 
drinks is very small, except cocoa, which owes its real food value 
to the milk with which ii is made. Fruit drinks owe their food 
value largely to the syrups used in thew making. 

Principles of Selection of Food. 

Three things have much importance in helping us instinc- 
tively to choose foods best suited to our individual needs. These 
are climate, occupation and water. 

Animal food is much better suited to a cold than a hot 
climate. The internal fires burn up more fuel, for we breathe 
more rapidly and take in more oxygen in cold than in warm 
weather. | 2 

The sugar and starch obtained from fruits and vegetables 
are easily digested. The Eskimo lives largely on blubber oil. 
The Norwegians, Swedes and other persons of the far North use 
large quantities of oily fish, while in hot climates, as in India 
and Southern China, the main diet is rice. The Arab’s diet 
consists mainly of dates, parched grains, and camel’s milk. To 
these the Turk adds melons and cucumberes. As the Italians 
are farther north, we naturally expect to find a heavier diet, and 
this is true, for this is the country of marcaroni, cheese, and chest- 
nuts. 


FOURTH QUARTER 137 


Strange as it may seem, the water of a country helps to 
determine the nature of its food requirements. In Ireland, the 
water, strongly loaded with lime, furnishes what the potato 
lacks. In England and Scotland, where the waters are soft, oats 
and wheat, which are rich in phosphates, are the principal diet. 

The craving of the natural instinct to obtain the elements— 
proteids, carbohydrates, fats and oils, and mineral foods—leads 
us to select such foods as will combine them in right proportion. 
In the spring, our appetites demand fresh fruits and vegetables 
so that the potash salts which have been lacking in our heavy 
winter diet, may be supplied. Our occupation also has much to 
do in determining the needs of the body for food. People 
engaged in sedentary occupation need food which may be served 
in an attractive form. They also must have the greatest nourish- 
ment in the most compact form. They should have animal food 
and starchy and warmth-giving foods. But people who work in 
the open prefer food which will stay by them. They prefer salt 
meat because it makes them drink more, and this supplies water 
necessary for excessive perspiration. 


The choosing of foods and the planning of meals lies largely - 
in the hands of the housekeeper. For this reason, it is highly 
wmportant that she have some very definite knowledge of food 
values. Fortunately, the body readily adapts itself to the various 
kinds of food offered, selecting such as it needs for its work, but 
should a diet be consistently day by day either over rich or under 
value in any important: food compound, the result will soon tell. 
For the average housekeeper it is almost if not quite impossible 
for her to have a perfectly balanced diet, but by careful planning 
a happy menu may be reached. A man weighing 150 pounds 
engaged in active work should have 3% ounces of protein a day. 
A woman needs about 4/5 of that amount, while growing child- 
ren need more in comparison to their size. The more active 
a life one lives the more food he will require. In this case, it is 
often well to increase the use of food rich in fats, starches, and 

sugar rather than those high in protein. Tests have proven that 
any meal which furnishes enough energy to the body will furnish 
enough protein. 


138 FOURTH QUARTER . 


Necessity for Indigestible Matter in Food. 


Some foods are valuable to the proper working of the 
various organs of the body which viewed from the point of their 
assimilation into the body, cannot be classed as foods at all. 
These foods are those which give bulk to the more concentrated 
diet or those which are laxative in nature. 

Of this class, bran is one of the most important and is highly 
recommended by physicians as a means of relief from constipa- 
tion. Among the latter class, although these also have real food 
value, may be mentioned oranges, lemons, grape fruit, apples, 
prunes, figs, green vegetables, honey, molasses, olive oil, butter- 
milk, cream, butter, and oatmeal. To the first class may also be 
added all whole grain breads and fruits, if eaten without peeling. 

Experiments have been conducted along this line very ex- 
tensively and while they tend to prove that a too concentrated 
diet is by no means desirable, they have also proved that the 
presence of bran and such “roughage” tend to lessen the amount 
of nutrients digested. They showed that for persons troubled 
with constipation, bran served to increase the churning motion 
of the intestines, and tended to cause the food to pass on before 
it was wholly digested. For this reason, such foods should be 
used by invalids only at their physician’s orders, but for the 
ordinary healthy person, inclination and taste may safely decide 
for one. 


Hygiene of Digestion, Principles Governing Selection of Food, 

Conditions Affecting Choice, as Activity, Temperature, 

Age. | 

Individual tastes and physiological dissimilarities will always 
play an important part in the choice of food eaten,’and dieticians 
must take these into consideration when planning menus. These 
peculiarities are not only individual, but national, so true, indeed 
is this that we have come to associate certain articles of diet 
with certain nations. The Englishman and his tea, the Russian 
and his caviare, the Italian and his spaghetti, the Frenchman and 
his salads and soups are too well known to need comment. 

But as national tastes differ as do individual tastes, the 
human system needs certain elements for its upkeep. These vary 


FOURTH QUARTER 139 


according to the age, activity, temperature, and climatic condi- 
tions. But should conditions be normal, the average adult will 
require about fourteen ounces of meat, sixteen ounces of bread, 
and three or four ounces of butter fat. In addition to this the 
body needs about fifty ounces of water during the day. In order 
to build up the body and repair its waste, and furnish the neces- 
sary amount of heat, a certain amount of each food element is 
indispensible. For example, about four and one-half ounces of 
albumin, four ounces of fat, and five ounces of sugar or starch 
must be eaten daily. To oxidize this amount of food will require 
a certain amount of oxygen. It has been estimated that in the 
course of a day a person breathes in about twenty-four ounces 
of oxygen which is sufficient to oxidize the quantities of the food 
elements that have been mentioned. Something should now be 
said of the kinds of foods the body needs. There is a real need 
for variety aside from mere preference. For example, we must 
have water, salt and lime compounds, starchy foods, fats, and 
a definite amount of nitrogenous foods. Should any of these 
be lacking, the body will soon feel the need of it. Sometimes 
‘this is shown by a peculiar craving for some things. Under- 
nourishment is quite frequently found in the congested districts 
of our large cities, where Saint Vitus Dance, Rickets and kin- 
dred diseases run rife. But even in the homes of the wealthy 
are often found improperly nourished children. The majority 
of people do not eat a balanced diet. Ordinarily, the most simple 
meals come nearer containing all the necessary food elements 
than do the more elaborate ones. A meal consisting of bread, 
meat or cheese, eggs, butter and milk, will furnish all the neces- 
sary food elements. 

When a housekeeper faces the pee of feeding old 
people, active, working middle aged people and children, all at 
the same time, her problem is no simple one. 

A growing girl or boy requires more food than an adult. 
The reason is evident for the child’s worn tissues must be 
repaired and also extra food 1s needed to provide for the growth 
of the tissues. At no imme of life 1s food oxidation so great as 
in childhood. Children are constantly in motion during their 
waking period. 


140 FOURTH QUARTER 


Experiments have shown that a child two and one-half 
years old, weighing twenty-five pounds, uses when at rest half 
as much oxygen as an adult weighing one hundred fifty pounds 
and nearly three times as much for each unit of weight. After 
seventy or seventy-five has been passed, there is a marked 
decrease in vitality and bodily activity. The food eaten is 
accordingly diminished. Oxidation has been found to be about 
20% less with a man of seventy than in one of twenty-five. 

Climate has no uncertain effect on the amount and kind 
of food required. Should you travel in different countries, you 
would find the people in one of them eating very different food 
and in very different quantities than the people in the others. 
We all know that people in extremely could countries must eat 
heat producing foods. The Eskimo, for example, must take 
great quantities of fat. In countries much to the south of us, 
where the climate is warm, the heat producing foods, such as 
meats and fats, are not in much demand. Fruits and vegetables 
are found much more desirable.. 


Adulterated Foods. 


The subject of adulterated foods is such a big one that whole 
volumes might be written about it, and the subject still not be 
adequately treated. For nearly half a century, the fight for pure 
unadulterated foods has been going on and the name most prom- 
inently connected with this fight is that of Harvey W. Wiley, 
who for years was chief of the Bureau of Chemistry until his 
resignation March 15, 1912. 

Adulteration of foods have taken many forms—all tending 
to cheapen the cost of the product. In some cases the result is 
harmless—the consumer simply pays for inferior material, while 
in others, the danger to life and health is great. As an example 
of the first, ground shells and fruit stones are often used to mix 
with spices, while preservatives and bleaches come under the 
second heading. 

Mixing, preserving and coloring are the three chief methods 
of adulteration. 

Some of the most commonly used adulterants known as 
chemical preservatives are the following: 


FOURTH QUARTER 141 


Boric acid, formerly much used in meats, milk, and butter. 

Benzoic acid, used in preserving catsup, mince meat, and 
certain fruit juices. 

Saccharin, a product of coal tar, used in place of sugar, 
for sweetening purposes. One part of saccharin has 400 or 500 
times as much sweetening power as the same amount of sugar. 

Some of the most commonly used adulterants used for 
coloring purposes are copper, which was used to produce a 
bright green color in such foods as canned peas, string beans, 
etc. Caramel, made from burnt sugar, was used to color flavor- 
ing extracts, such as vanilla, and to give the appearance of age 
~ to liquors. 

Tumeric was used tc give a bright yellow color to mustard 
preparations. 

Among the “mixing adulterants” are cotton seed oil, which 
was formerly much used as an adulterant of olive oil. 

Glucose was much used as a substitute for sugar in jellies, 
jams, etc. Starch was used in jellies to thicken them, also in 
spices and condiments to increase the bulk. 

Coffee has been adulterated in many ways, mainly by the 
addition of chickory, peas, beans, etc. If ground, the adultera- 
tion is more difficult to detect. 

Flour, vinegar, butter, milk, and ice cream have all come 
in for their share of adulteration. Water is the main adulterant 
of milk, while gelatin that of ice cream. 

Candies have suffered much from adulterants. Starch, 
paraffin, and large amounts of coloring matter are often added. 


Source of Food Supplies and Necessity for Cleanliness. 

Food sanitation has now come to be a question of the 
greatest importance. Because of their source or condition, foods 
may be the direct cause of many diseases. With our increasing 
population and change in commercial conditions the government 
has found it necessary to take active steps in the guarding of 
public health. For this there are many reasons, among them 
being the following: 

1. Changes in composition of food due to long storage. 

2. Exposure to dust and flies, not only during transporta- 
tion, but in the city markets. 


142 FOURTH QUARTER 


- 


3. Collection of food materials from sources over which 
there is no sanitary supervision. 


4. Transportation over long distances, with acompanying 
danger of fermentation and contamination. 


5.. Presence in canned and preserved foods of certain sub- 
stances known as adulterants. 


Many people condemn the use of uncooked foods as dan- 
gerous. To a certain extent this is true. A. certain epidemic 
of typhoid fever occurred in Middletown, Conn., in 1894, which 
was traced directly to the eating of raw oysters “fattened” near 
the mouth of sewers. 


Fruits and vegetables are a possible source of diseases. Many 
are raised in manure which is alive with germs. In the city 
markets, flies swarm over the produce on sale. For these reasons, 
the housewntfe 1s urged to thoroughly clean all vegetables and: 
fruits and cook them, if at all possible, before théy are served. 
Such fruits as oranges, bananas, lemons, etc., are rendered safe 
by a careful washing before the fruit is cut. 


With our modern means of transportation, our foods come 
to us from all parts of the earth. From the shores of Alaska we 
get our canned salmon, and from the deserts of Arabia our 
dates and figs.. With this diversity in locality, one can easily see 
the danger incurred unless great care is taken in the home prep- 
aration of our foods. Many of them come to us in air tight 
cartons, factory sealed, and with these little danger is run. How- 
ever, there are certain precautions that the average housekeeper 
must take. The greatest care must be exercised in keeping food 
at a uniform temperature, and away from contamination of all 
sorts. A modern refrigerator, if properly cared for, is one of 
the best safeguards to health, but if neglected may become a 
fruitful source of infection. 

It should not be forgotten that food, even when placed in 
a refrigerator, does not cease to undergo change. For this 
reason, ventilation of refrigerators should be perfect and they 
should be perfectly clean, especial attention being given to the 
care of drain pipes. 


FOURTH QUARTER 143 


Preparation of Food. Advantages of Proper Cooking. 


It is a famous saying that “civilized man cannot live with- 
out cooks.” Perhaps there is more truth in it than at first 
appears. Cooking is the first step in the process of digestion: 
It renders the food soft and crisp so that it can be more easily 
chewed. With proper seasoning, it is more agreeable to the taste 
and calls out a more generous flow of the digestive juices. The 
heat necessary to cook food also kills any disease germs that 
may be found in it. We are speaking, of course, of good cook- 
ing. Improper cooking often makes good food harmful to us. 
Broiling, roasting, and boiling are three good ways. of cooking. 
As methods of cooking, they rank in the order named. 

In cooking meats, it is best-to keep the natural juices in 
them as much as possible. This can best be done by broiling. 
The heat almost instantly seals up the meat so that the juices 
cannot escape. In roasting, the meat should be placed in a very 
hot oven or vessel so that the juices may be retained. The 
process of boiling depends somewhat upon whether soup is to 
be made. Jf the purpose is merely to prepare the meat for food, 
at should be placed in hot water, but if one wishes to make soup 
he should cut the meat fine and place it in cold water and then 
gradually bring it to boiling. 

Frying cannot be so highly recommended as a method of 
cooking. The fat used in cooking generally forms a very hard 
coating over the meat so that the digestive juices penetrate it 
with difficulty. Fried food is, therefore, more difficult to digest 
than tf broiled, boiled, or roasted. Some of the undesirable 
results, however, can be avoided by having the melted fat and 
the pan which contains it very hot before putting into it the 
meat, potatoes, eggs, or buckwheat cake. This renders it more 
like broiling. Quick frying is much better than slow frying. 
Frying is not without its good points. It is a time saving process 
and also develops very desirable flavors. 

To sum up the reasons for cooking then, we may say that 
there are three. First, cooking makes food -easier to chew and 
digest. It bursts the grains of starch, coagulates the jell-hke. 
pulp of meats, the white of an egg, and the gluten of flour. It 
prepares food for.the work of the teeth. You can appreciate 


144 FOURTH QUARTER 


the change by comparing the taste of a raw potato with that of 
a roasted or broiled one. This was doubtless the reason why 
cooking came to. be done. You need only draw on your experi- 
ence for proof of this reason for cooking. Lastly, cooking 
sterilizes food. Tribes of Indians who cooked their food were 
found to have less stomach trouble and lived longer than others. 
Certain parasites and germs are known to live on meats and 
fruits. As has been said, the heat of cooking kills them and 
renders the food sterile. 


Proper Serving of Food. 


Important as the proper cooking of food is, one must not 
overlook the almost equal importance of serving. 7 

The dinner hour is the one time of the day when the family 
is gathered together and in the setting of the table and the serv- 
ing of the meal, three things’ should be kept in mind. There 
should first be simplicity, a simplicity which will give a feeling 
of rest. The second point to be noted 1s good arrangement of 
the table. A simple, orderly arrangement of cups, knives, forks, 
and spoons does much to give an air of harmony to the room. 
The third point to be noted is convenience. The table must be 
set so that each person will have the necessary utensils within easy 
reach. 


Reasons for Regularity and Moderation in Eating. 


A keen appetite is one of the main causes of too rapid and 
over eating. /f one eats too rapidly, he is much more likely to 
over eat than if his food is taken slowly and thoroughly masti- 
cated. All rapid eaters are large eaters, though most of them 
are of the opinion that they eat but little, simply because they 
spend but little time at the table. The only way to cure this too 
prevalent habit is by forcing oneself to eat slowly. Sometimes 
physicians find patients’ systems so overloaded with food that 
a strict fast for twenty-four hours must be resorted to until the 
patient has had time to use up or eliminate the excessive amount 
of food stored up. Laxatives are often resorted to to aid nature 
in regaining her normal level. 


FOURTH QUARTER 145 


In most cases three meals a day are sufficient. This is for 
the normal healthy patient. Special cases of illness are governed 
by their special needs. 

The proper time for the largest meal of the day is in the 
early part of the day. One of the most absurd customs America 
copied from European countries is that of having but a cup of 
coffee and a roll for breakfast and a heavy meal at night. By 
midnight, if the dinner is eaten at 6:00 P. M., the stomach has 
-cofnpletely disposed of its contents and by 8:00 A. M. after its 
eight hours of rest, is ready for a substantial meal. Experiments 
have proved that digestion is more perfect in the morning than 
later in the day. But the manner of life for most of us must 
determine our habits of eating, and whatever they may be they 
should at least be regular, for the digestive organs under normal 
conditions soon become accustomed to caring for food at certain 
hours, and if it is not then supplied headache and weakness are 
apt to result. Jt is scarcely necessary that one should eat between 
meals, nor should one eat excessively of candy and sweets. The 
pleasant taste of candy and nuts often leads us to overeat of 
them and brings on attacks of indigestion. Perhaps the best 
drink to accompany our meals is water, although milk and cocoa 
may be used. The latter, however, are foods as well as drinks. 

As to the quantity of food to be taken, one should always 
eat a little less than he really wants, and most certainly less than 
he can. It is not how much, but how well we eat that should be 
remembered. It 1s, unwise to eat until one feels full and dull. 
This would be intemperate and would lead to ill health. 


Pleasant Surroundings at Meals. 

The mental condition of a person has much to do with. 
appetite and digestion. Every physician knows the harmful 
effects of shame, anger, worry or overwork, and the good effects 
of joy and happiness upon one’s digestion. Indeed, the many 
advantages of good companionship at the table has been known 
from the earliest times and has been written upon by many 
authors. To such an extent was this notion carried that im 
Roman times all feasts were enlivened by paid singers and 
dancers. Today the modern cabaret in our hotels and cafe dining 
rooms are a survival of this ancient custom. 


146 FOURTH QUARTER 


The nervous system controls digestion, just as it controls 
all other bodily functions. The secretion of digestive juices and 
the action of the various organs of digestion are affected by 
whatever affects the nervous system. Worry has been known to 
keep the food in the stomach for twelve hours in just the same 
condition as it entered. 

Our meals should always be eaten leisurely and under 
pleasant conditions. The conversation should always be of a 
cheerful sort. Stories of personal difficulties and grievances ‘are 
poor topics of conversation at meal times. Parents sometimes 
find it necessary to correct a child at the table, but this should 
be done in as quiet a way as possible, for many an attack of 
indigestion in children can be directly traceable to a “scene” at 
some meal. 


Thorough Mastication. 


Insufficient mastication is perhaps one of the most serious 
as well as the most prevalent offenses against human digestion. 
Man is practically the only creature which bolts its food without 
careful chewing. Food, if insufficiently chewed, must remain 
in the stomach a much longer time than if thoroughly ground up. 
Here the food is attacked by bacterial growths under the favor- 
able presence of moisture and warmth. Decomposition begins, 
and the work of the digestive juices are hindered. Then, too, 
if one does not chew his food thoroughly he is apt to: eat a great 
deal more than if he had chewed it fine. This means that the 
digestive tract is overtaxed with an undue amount of material, 
which it must dispose of. 

Mr. Horace Fletcher has made some very interesting experi- 
_ments along this line, and the fact that he is now well past sixty, 
yet is hearty and vigorous as a man of twenty seems to prove his 
contention that most of our ailments come from poorly digested 
food—the result of poor chewing and rapid eating. Thorough 
mastication lessens the time necessary for rest and sleep, since 
the system is not overworked with products of decomposition. 
People who masticate thoroughly are soon found to eat less pro- 
tein than formerly, when they ate rapidly. 

The food should be chewed until every particle has been 
ground to a fme soft pulp. You will be surprised to note fine 


> 


FOURTH QUARTER 147 


flavors you had not noticed before. If you have but five minutes 
in which to eat, do not hurry. A little carefully chewed is much 
better than a great quantity hastily swallowed. 


Care of the Teeth and Mouth. 


Most people feel that they understand the care of their 
mouth and teeth, but few really realize the importance of this 
care. Jf one wants good strong teeth, he should give them plenty 
of exercise. One of the best means to secure this exercise is to 
thoroughly chew all food taken into the mouth. Some dentists 
deeply deplore the fact that so much of our food requires so 
little chewing. This is especially true of cereal breakfast foods. 
Chewing meats and bread crusts is good exercise for the teeth. 
One reason for this is that pressure is put on the roots and the 
gums become more healthful. The teeth should be given a 
thorough cleaning after each meal, as the bits of food that lodge 
between them give rise to acids that corrode the enamel. A 
moderately stiff tooth brush should be used along with some 
good dentrifice. Some people prefer liquid tooth washes. These 
are usually beneficial in that they possess antiseptic qualities, but 
at this their virtue usually ceases. They are rarely harmful. 
Other people prefer tooth pastes of which the number is uncount- 
able. Here each person must exercise his own judgment, some 
being good, some being bad, and some indifferent. Too many 
depend upon a catchy name, an attractive container or a sweet 
scent to catch the popular favor. While few of them live up to 
the extravagant claims made by their producers, few of them 
are really injurious. Many dentists recommend a tooth powder 
as the best cleaning dentrifice. If well chosen-this is true, for 
there is more scouring material in the dry powder than in paste, 
but many powders contain gritty material or dangerous acids, 
which in time will ruin the enamel. 

One should never use any but a wooden tooth pick. A pin 
or other metallic substance should never be used, as the danger 
of scratching or breaking the enamel is great. One should never 
crack nuts with the teeth—they were never intended to take the 
place. of steel nut crackers. One should also use great care in 
biting very hard candies or other substances of this sort. 


148 FOURTH QUARTER 


Much stomach trouble is caused by carelessness in the care 
of the teeth and mouth. Germs from decayed teeth pass into the 
alimentary canal and interfere with digestion. This condition is 
especially serious with babies. A saturated solution of borax 
makes an excellent mouth wash. This solution may be applied 
to the mouth and gums with a soft cloth. In persistent cases of 
sore mouth either of children or adults, one should consult a 
physician. Rigg’s disease or pyhorrea 1s a disease attacking the 
gums, causing them to recede. In advanced stages the gums 
bleed easily, and the disease may progress to such an-extent that 
finally the teeth loosen and fall out. 

It is never wise to defer a trip to the dentist, as this may — 
mean the loss of the tooth as well as increased pain. A tooth 
should be filled while the cavity is yet small, because it is less 
painful and the expense not so great. Expensive crown and 
bridge work is generally the result of neglect to consult a dentist. 


Beverages—Water; Necessity for in the Body. 


Water is one of the main essentials of human life. In the 
inorganic foods, it takes precedence since it comprises 6624% of 
the body. It is absolutely necessary to the performance of every 
bodily function. Man may go days without food, but after 
twenty-four hours without water, the longing becomes so intense, 
if continued, often results in loss of reason for the victim. 

Water is used largely in the digestion of foods. While some 
water may be taken with our meals, it is better to drink copiously 
an hour or so before each meal, then let the salivary glands secret 
the moisture necessary to moisten the food. 

Water is also used in the process of absorption of digested 
foods. It makes up 90% of the fluids of the body,, thus making 
possible the easy distribution of food materials. Within each 
living cell water is necessary to all the life processes. The 
glands make use of it largely in their secretions. For example, 
9914% of the saliva is water and 98% of the pancreatic juice 
is water. | 

Man had added many things to pure water to increase its 
palatability as a beverage, but nothing is more effective in slaking 
thirst than pure cold water alone. 


FOURTH QUARTER 149 


Water from shallow wells should always be looked upon 
with suspicion as they are very likely contaminated by surface 
water. Water flowing through sand and gravel is apt to be pure 
and softer than that which filters through rock. Driven wells 


made by driving iron pipes in the ground, are considered the best 
kind. 


Sources of Drinking Water and Ice Supplies and Necessary 
Precautions. 

Water in general use is obtained from springs or wells. This 
is especially true of rural districts. Cities depend largely upon 
their water from lakes or rivers, and use various devices to 
either protect it from contamination through drainage from fac- 
tories or house sewerage or to purify it, if such protection is 
possible. Such cities as St. Louis, located on large rivers, have 
an adequate supply, but face the problem of purifying it. In St. 
Louis, one of the best equipped filtering plants in the world is 
located, where the filtering is carried on in an inconceivably large 
scale. 

Most waters contain more or less mineral salts held in solu- 
tion, for the most part carbonates. When these waters cause 
a curdling of soap suds, the water is said to be hard. Springs 
issuing from sand are usually soft. Wells which draw their 
supply of water from rock strata are usually hard, since they 
take the salts from the rock through which they have filtered. 
Rain water is soft when it first falls, but may later become hard 
from standing in cisterns. The boiling of water 1s recommended 
when there is a chance of its being contaminated. This not only 
kills all bacterial germs, but removes a considerable amount of 
carbohydrates. Boiled water unless aerated, has an insipid taste. 
This may be done by putting the boiled water in a jar, leaving 
it but about half full, then thoroughly shaking the jar. This 
restores the original flavor. 

The average person needs about two quarts of water every 
twenty-four hours. About one-half of this amount is taken as 
food. Weather conditions cause our needs of water to vary 
greatly. On hot, dry days we drink much more than we do on 
cool, cloudy ones. As a rule, most people drink too little water 
and as a result suffer from constipation and kidney trouble. 


150 FOURTH QUARTER 


As was stated in a former topic, our ice supply depends 
either upon natural or artificial ice. Natural ice stands greater 
chance of being impure than artificial, yet unless the latter is 
made from filtered water, we cannot be sure of its purity. 

Every possible precaution should be taken to see that not 
only the source but the delivery of both water and ice are pure. 
If not pure, extra precautions must be taken in the home. In 
regard to water, many devices have been made for its purifica- 
tion, such as filters and chemical reagents, but the safest, surest 
and easiest is simply boiling, then aerating. 

If there is any question as to the purity of the ice supply — 
it should be used only for refrigeration and never put in any food 
or drink. All ice should be washed under running water before 
being put in the chest or refrigerator. 


Tea and Coffee—Sources—Properties—Effects. 


Tea is made from the leaves of a small shrub found growing 
in China, Japan, and Ceylon. It grows from three to six feet 
high and sends out four sets of shoots each year. The two 
small leaves at the top of each shoot make the finest tea as they 
contain the most juice and the least fiber. These make the 
Flowery and the Orange Pekoe. The larger leaves farther down 
the stem are used for the Pekoe, Congo, and Souchang teas, 
inferior in flavor. Young Hyson and Gunpowder are made from 
the same grade of leaves. There are two ways of preparing the 
tea for market, and results in either black or green tea. Black 
tea is made by withering the leaves in the sun, then rolling them 
into balls and allowing them to ferment. When fermentation is 
complete, they are dried in the sun or in a furnace. Green tea 
is made as black tea with the exception that it is not allowed to 
ferment before being dried. 

The tannin in black tea is rendered less harmful, less soluble 
by the digestive juices. For this reason, it is more healthful 
than green tea, but it contains more theine, the stimulant, than 
green tea. 


Green Black 
Tea. Tea. 
Pannier. SAAS Ba ee esere nee 10.64% 4.89% 


Theine \iutcusa ued ieee aah eae ae eee 3.20% 3.30% 


FOURTH QUARTER 151 


The characteristic flavor of tea is due to various oils. Some 
of these oils are contained in the tea, others, as fragrant olive oil, 
is added. The best teas on the market are blended teas from 
different countries. Teas from different countries have different 
flavors. While tea and coffee contain some protein and carbo- 
hydrates, they cannot be properly classed as foods but as stimu- 
lants. This means that they increase mental and physical alert- 
ness, and for this reason should not be used by children whose 
delicate nervous system does not need these stimulants. 

The stimulants in tea is theine, in coffee, caffein. Tannin is 
the most harmful substance contained in tea. The amount in 
a cup of tea depends upon the length of time the water is al- 
lowed to stand on the leaves. Tannin interferes with the secre- 
tion of digestive juices and especially with the digestion of 
protein. 

The coffee tree is a cultivated evergreen found in the tropics. 
In its natural state, it grows to thirty feet in height, but when 
under cultivation it is kept pruned from six to ten feet in height. 
The fruit of the tree resembles a cherry. In this fruit are two 
seeds embedded. These are the coffee grains. The fruit is 
dried, the seeds removed, cleaned, and graded. 

Coffee has an entirely different composition from tea. It is 
high in fat and soluble carbohydrates. It also contains caffein, an 
alkaloid identical with theine. 

The following table will show the difference between green 
and roasted coffee. 

Raw. Roasted. 


ROerRr RON ars Tones fyi See ey ek ees ars 11.23 1.15 
Be I fee e ar heey Pn ry eG hen, ne, 3.92 475 
Rr ee oe Ane Toh regis sek pe, be. bie 12527 14.48 
EER. See GORE Mit eee - 66 8.55 
(os isehnat  S0 SER age ine al ee ae Aa Ic a tZ.07 13.98 
OE oe Pt Bon 0 RAN aa ee en 1.21 LAs 


The greater amount of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates 
in the roasted article is due to the effect of the heat upon the non- 
nitrogenous compounds. 

Since only a small part of the nutrients are soluable and 
available coffee cannot be considered a food. It is a beverage 


152 FOURTH QUARTER 


with mildly stimulating properties. Coffee acts with different ef- 
fects upon different individuals. Some people should never use it. 
while others seem immune to its action. Since coffee is more 
generally used in this country than tea, it is more subject to 
adulteration. There are three kinds of coffee in general use— 
Mocho, Java, and Rio or Brazil. The former is considered the 
best, while the last is usually styled by dealers as “low” or “low — 
middlings.” Mocha commands the highest market price. The 
seeds are small and dark yellow before roasting. The Brazil has 
the largest berry. The active ingredients of coffee is caffein. 
This substance stimulates the cells of the body to do extra work. 
It has a tendency to create an appetite. As a stimulant, its action 
is vigorous, both on the nerves and the digestive system. Child- 
ren should never be given coffee as they do not need it, and their 
nervous systems are too readily acted upon by it. For most 
grown people, its moderate use is not to be condemned, and in 
some cases following cold and exposure, its use is very beneficial. 
It should never be drunk at night as it has a tendency to produce 
wakefulness. 


Nourishing Drinks; Milk, Chocolate, Cocoa, and Cereal Drinks. 


Some drinks have the proprieties of foods and are therefore 
known as nourishing drinks. Among them are milk, cocoa, cho- 
colate, and all sorts of cereal drinks. : 

Milk is both food and drink. For young animals it is a per- 
féct food up to a certain age, but in that it does not contain iron, 
the growing child after the period of infancy requires more bone 
building material. It contains not only protein and energy yielding _ 
substances, but also almost all the minerals needed by the body. 

However, its composition is such that life may be sustained 
for long periods on milk alone and in some diseases milk forms 
almost a sole diet. Fat is one of the most valuable constituents 
_ of milk and varies from 2% to as high as 6% or even more. The 
main difference in milk is in the fat content as the ash, albumin, 
etc., do not vary much in different milks. The variation in fat 
depends upon the feed, time of the year, breed and individuality 
of the animal: 

Milk is one of the most completely digested of all foods used 
by the body. About 95% of the protein and 97% of the carbo- 


FOURTH QUARTER 153 


hydrates are taken up in digestion. Some people cannot digest 
milk easily. This is because it coagulates and forms a mass 
resistive to the digestive juices. This may be prevented by eating 
crackers or bread with it. ) 

Pure milk is one of the most wholesome of all foods, but it 
is also one of the greatest sources of danger from disease unless 
produced under sanitary surroundings. Some of the most fre- 
quent sources of unsanitary milk are: unhealthy animals, poor 
food, dirty barns, impure water, and lack of care in the handling 
and delivering of the milk. 

Chocolate is the finely ground powder from the bean of the 
cocoa tree, a native of the American tropics. The beans are 
about the size of almonds and are taken from their pod and al- 
lowed to ferment usually, in ovens, for about two days. This fer- 
mentation determines largely the flavor of the finished product. 
The beans are next dried in the sun, where they change from 
white to their characteristic chocolate color. They are next 
roasted and the husks removed. They are next ground and sold 
as cracked cocoa or cocoa nibs. If cocoa is desired instead of 
chocolate, some of the fat is presed out and sold as cocoa butter. 
If sweet chocolate is desired, sugar and flavoring are added. 

Tannin is found in the raw bean, but is changed during the 
drying and causes the reddish color. 

Certain cereal drinks are regarded as more or less nutritious. 
Some of these preparations contain a little real coffee, but for the 
most part are made of wheat, barley, or of grain mixed with pea 
hulls, ground corn cobs or wheat middlings. To these New Or- 
leans molasses or other sweetening is added. Their main claim to 
superiority is that they are non-stimulating, but a few lovers of 
coffee will accept them as comparing in flavor to a good grade of 
coffee. As far as nutritive value is concerned, parching probably 
renders some of the carbohydrates soluble, but it is so little that 
as foods they are not worth considering in the dietary. 


Non-Alcoholic Refreshing Drinks, Lemonade, Orangeade, Un 
fermented Fruit Juices, Fruit Syrups. 


Especially during the hot months of summer, certain non- 
alcoholic drinks are very refreshing. These are made from the 


154 FOURTH QUARTER 


juices of various fruits, the most common of which are lemons, 
oranges, pineapples, grapes, strawberries, and various other 
kinds of berries. These are of little food value, since the amount 
of juices contained is small, but they are cooling, do not create 
an appetite, and the action of the acid contained in them 1s highly — 
beneficial to the digestive system. 

Fresh fruits are composed largely of water. Bananas are 
three-fourths water; strawberries nine-tenths and such fruits 
as watermelons are even more. It is not because of their nutri- 
ents that they are valuable in human diet, but because of the 
chemical reaction they cause to take place. A diet of cereals, 
meat, and eggs cause an acid reaction in the system, but the ac- 
tion of a fruit diet is alkaline, hence the need of the latter. The 
bulkiness of fruit and vegetables is beneficial in counteracting a 
tendency to constipation. ) . 

The sugar found in ripe fruit is known as fruit sugar and is 
two and one-half times as sweet as ordinary sugar. Their organic 
acids, as malic acid in apples, citric acid in lemons and oranges, 
and tartaric acid in grapes, have characteristic medicinal prop- 
erties. The essential or volatile oils are the compounds which 
give each fruit its characteristic flavor. 

Lemonade is made from the juice of lemons, sugar and 
water in varying degrees. Orangeade is made in the same way. 
The grape fruit in recent years has come to be very widely used, 
and while seldom used alone as a basis for a drink, is especially 
palatable if combined with other fruit juices. 

Strawberries are a valuable addition to non-alcoholic summer 
drinks. Their value is a high dietetic value rather than a real 
food value. 

Grapes contain more dry matter than either apples or oranges. 
Their juice when thinned with ice water is especially good for sick 
folk or invalids. : 

While fruit juice drinks are especially commended for hot 
weather use, the greatest care should be used if they are pur- 
chased rather than made in the home. There is no article of 
food more readily adulterated than this class of drinks. Some 
times the substitutes are harmless enough, but often pernicious 
coloring matters and chemicals are used in their manufacture. 


FOURTH QUARTER 155 


In many bottled drinks now on the market, there is not one par- 
ticle of real fruit juice used. This is especially true of pineapple 
juice, which, if pure, is very expensive, but which can be manu- 
factured by a chemist at a fraction of the cost of the genuine. 
Pineapple flavoring is the ethyle butrate. This may be made from 
butyric acid from stale butter and alcohol. 

Banana flavor can be made from stale butter, caustic soda 
and chloroform. ‘Thus we see how necessary it is that we know 
the source of our flavoring extracts. 

Those fruit syrups made at home, and which are often left 
from the canning season, are the best, safest and cheapest to use, 
and the thrifty house wife who can look over the shelves of a well 
stocked fruit closet and see cans or jars of strawberry syrup, 
pineapple juice, peach or plum syrup, and grape juice can feel 
well satisfied with her summer’s work and may rest assured that 
she has not only a safe, clean source of healthy drinks, but that 
in case of sickness she has a reserve upon which to draw that 
money could scarcely buy. 


The Nervous System. 

Even the well built, well nourished body could not exist with- 
out something more. This something is the nervous system that 
raises man above a mere vegetable or even in many respects, 
above the animal. 

We can think of the body as a beautiful house. But if from 
this beautiful home we would take all the electric wiring it would 
prove to be a dark cheerless place. There would be no electric 
lights, no telephone, no radio, no electric sweeper, toaster, per- 
culator or any of the many modern conveniences found in well 
equipped homes. In many even the heat is dependent upon 
electricity either from electric heaters or motors that drive all 
into the furnaces. 

The body would be in much the same condition if we de- 
prived it of its nervous system. We could not move, smell, see, 
think, hear, feel, taste, in fact, have no greater life than does a 
cabbage in the garden. It would perhaps not be too far to go to 
say that we could not have life itself. Since the nervous system 
then plays such an impertant part in our well being, let us then 
see what it is and how it performs its duties, 


156 FOURTH QUARTER 


Under the nervous system scientists place the brain, all the 
nerves of the body, and the spinal cord. The nervous system is 
made up of white and gray matter. By many authors, the brain 
has been compared to the superintendent of a large factory, in 
that it controls and directs all the activities of the body. Some- 
times it acts under our will or direction; in other cases it acts in- 
dependently of our knowledge or wish. It seems to be a sort of 
telephone exchange where all messages are received and sent to 
other parts of the body. When we speak of the brain, we gen- 
erally think of it as the organ with which we do our thinking; of 
course this is true but its use is far greater than this. 

The brain is divided into three distinct parts, yet all are asso- 
ciated together. The cerebrum is the part of the brain that fills 
the upper and front part of the skull. The cerebrum is the seat 
of the thinking mind; the cerebellum is the part of the brain that 
is in the back part of the skull. 

Great scientific men have agreed that the real functions of 
the cerebellum are not known; the third part of the brain is the 
medulla oblongata; this is simply the upper extension of the 
spinal cord. . 

The average weight of the brain of a man is about three 
pounds. It is about four or six ounces lighter in a woman. It is 
divided lengthwise into two halves each shaped similar to a coffee 
bean. It seems strange to know that the right side of the brain 
controls the left side of the body and vice versa. The brain is 
covered with three membranes; the middle one secretes a fluid. - 
These membranes protect the brain. The brain is made up of 
two kinds of matter, the white and gray matter. The gray mat- 
ter is the most impertant and serves as the outer covering of the 
brain. The white matter seems to be mere bundles of wires car- 
rying messages from one group of gray matter to the other. 


Nerve Cells. 


Many of the nerves end in little round bodies; these bodies 
are the nerve cells. These cells are composed of gray mattr, 
and are from 1/1200 to 1/2000 of an inch in diameter. Think of 
the difficulty the scientists must have had to study these cells. 
The number of such cells in the body is much past computation, 


FOURTH QUARTER 157 


but in the brain alone it is estimated that there are more than 
8,000,000,000. There is no part of the body that is not connected 
with some such cell by a nerve fiber. In the brain mostly these 
cells lie on the surface, for unlike other parts of the body, the 
soft gray matter is here protected by a hard, bony covering and is 
less exposed to injury than are the cells which are found in the 
muscular parts. ° 


Nerves. Nerve Fibers. 


The nerves are like little threads, comopsed of white matter 
on the outside and gray matter within. They are found in all parts 
of the body. The nerves are made up of a bundle of little threads 
called nerve fibers. The nerve threads are of various sizes, from 
1/4000 of an inch in diameter to the great sciatic nerve of the leg 
which is as large as the end of the little finger. It seems that all! 
the nerve fibers have a connection with the spinal cord, and then 
with the brain; they are cylindrical in shape and on the outside 
are covered with a covering of fat. This is a sort of protection 
for the nerves and at the same time helps them to retain their 
shape. The nerves act with great quickness and transmitting 
messages is the main work of the nerves. The nerve fibers seem 
to be the mere conductors of nerve force. They are means of 
communication between the nerve centers and the outside of the 
body. These nerve centers are composed of cells made up of 
gray matter, and it is in this part that nerve force originates. 


Cerebro-Spinal Nervous System. 


As has been stated before, all acts of our body are of two 
kinds—voluntary or involuntary. When we move the arm and 
pick up a book, the act is voluntary or conscious on our part, but 
the muscles that control our heart, lungs, and many other organs 
of the body are under the control of nerves which act quite inde- 
pendently of our will. The former set of organs—those which 
we consciously control—are known as organs of animal life and 
are regulated by the cerebro-spinal nervous system, while the 
latter organs—those not under our control—are known as the 
organs of organic life; these are controlled by the sympathetic 


158 FOURTH QUARTER 


system. As the name of the cerebro-spinal nervous system indi- 
cates, it is composed of the cerebrum, or brain, and the spinal 
cord. ‘This is the only part of our nervous system over which we 
have any control. But it comprises by far the greater part of the 
nervous apparatus. It includes not only the brain but the spinal 
cord, and all the nerves which take their origin in these parts. 


Cerebrum. 


The cerebrum fills all the upper part of the skull. In weight 
it comprises about 7/8 of the entire brain. It is a mass of white 
fibers, surrounded by masses of gray cells. In appearance it is 
somewhat like the meat of an English walnut with their curiously 
ridged surfaces. This formation gives a large surface for the 
placing of much gray matter. In an infant the cerebrum is 
smooth with no ridges, while in a person with great mental powers 
the ridges are deep and intricate. The two hemispheres of the 
cerebrum have a connection on the under side by fibers of white 
matter. The cerebrum by many experiments has been proven to 
be the center of thought and intelligence. That part of our being 
we know as our mind has been its center. It centers our will 
power and controls our voluntary acts. 


Spinal Cord. 

The spinal cord is about eighteen inches long and about one- 
half inch in diameter. At the center of the cord is a tiny canal, 
which is directly connected with the cavities of the brain. It is 
covered with three coats similar to the coverings of the brain. 
This cord is soft and white and occupies the upper two-thirds of 
the back bone. It reaches about to the lowest rib and at its lowest ~ 
end it branches into a number of nerves similar to the hairs in a 
horse’s tail. The spinal cord is a great helper to the brain for it 
performs some work without the aid of the brain. We have no 
control over it at all. It orders the cells to be fed, and also orders 
the arteries to carry the blood to the cells. It is well protected 
by the vertebral column. The spinal cord gives off thirty-one 
pairs of nerves known as the spinal nerves. These pass through 
openings between the rings of the back bone. It is composed of 
two kinds of matter, the white and gray; the latter being in the 
center. 


FOURTH QUARTER 159 


Arrangement of Nerve Matter in the Brain and Cord. 

As we already know, the nervous system is composed of two 
kinds of matter—white and gray. In the brain, the gray matter 
forms the covering, while the white, or nerve fibers, are on the 
inside. When it comes to the spinal cord the reverse is true, and 
here we find the white matter as the outer sheath. We have also 
seen how the nerve fibers start and end in gray matter or nerve 
cells. Sometimes where a nerve runs through a mass of gray 
matter, little knots are formed, known as ganglia. In fact, wher- 
ever gray matter is separated from other gray matter and united 
by white nerve fibers, these separate bits may be called ganglion. 
Even the different parts of the brain may be classed under this 
namie. 


The Cranial Nerves. 


There are twelve pairs of the Cranial nerves. They spring 
from the medulla and the lower part of the brain. 

_ The first pair is called the olfactory nerve and is the nerve of 
smell, sent to the nose so that we can appreciate odors. The sec- 
ond pair is called the optic nerve. It controls our sight. The 
third pair has nerve fibers distributed to the muscles of the eye- 
ball, and with the fourth and sixth pairs, regulate all the move- 
ments of the eye. The fifth pair is the tri-facial, and divides into 
three parts; the first goes to the upper face, eyes and nose; the 
second, to the upper jaw, temples, cheeks, upper lip, teeth, and 
palate; the third, to the lower jaw, side of the head, lower part 
of the face, and skin of the external ear. The seventh pair of 
nerves are distributed over the face and give it its expression. 
The eighth pair is the nerve of hearing. The ninth pair is found 
in the mucous membrane at the back of the nose and pharynx. 
The tenth pair, by its motor fibers, controls the larynx, lungs, 
liver, kidneys, intestines, and heart. The eleventh pair controls 
the movement connected with swallowing, also the vocal section 
of the larynx. The twelfth pair is distributed to the muscles of 
the tongue, and control its swallowing, also the speech. 


Spinal Nerves. , 
The spinal nerves issue from the spinal cord through open- 
ings between the rings of the backbone. Each spinal nerve 


t 


160 FOURTH QUARTER 


springs from two roots—an interior and a posterior—the former 
is the motory and the latter the sensory. Both of these roots 
unite to form one nerve; they remain as such until they reach dis- 
tant parts of the body, then they separate again. The spinal 
nerve fibers which started from the motory root end in the mus- 
cles, and the spinal nerves which started from the sensory root 
end in the skin. Those that end in the muscles tell the muscles 
when and how to act. Those which end in the skin bring to our 
consciousness feelings of heat, cold, pain, comfort, touch, etc. 


Reflex Action. Its Importance. How Habits Are Formed 


The greater part of the spinal cord is composed of white 
matter, but the inner portion is gray matter. This wise arrange- 
ment by nature saves the brain much work. This gray matter 
attends to many of the simpler acts of the body without asking aid _ 
of the brain. In this way we, while asleep, perform many acts 
without knowledge on our part at all. If the body grows tired 
in one position, the impulse is carried to the gray matter of the 
spinal cord, the nerves cause the muscles to contract and our 
position is changed without the brain being troubled in the least. 
In this way we save ourselves many times from accident when we 
jerk the hand or dodge to prevent ourselves injury. This is 
known as “reflex action,” and is performed much quicker than an 
act could be performed if the message had first to be communi- 
cated to the brain. Not only this, but, if it were not for reflex 
action, we would be compelled to think every time we breathed, 
and, indeed, every time our heart beat. Thus we see that our 
whole time would be devoted merely to the functions of life. As 
it is, an act which at first requires all our attention in time be- 
comes purely mechanical. Upon this truth all the possibilities of 
education, culture, and habit are based. When we once do a 
thing or think a thing, it leaves upon our brain a definite impres- 
sion which has a tendency to cause us to repeat the same thing 
again. Thus it is by concentrating our minds upon some act and - 
performing it again and again, it at last becomes as we say, almost 
“second nature.” This shows how our physical and mental life 
are intertwined and how important it is that we form habits of 
industry and sobriety, for even if we wish to change our manner 


FOURTH QUARTER 161 


of living and drinking, and really make serious efforts in this di- 
rection, we can never be sure that traces of our old evil ways are 
not yet stamped upon our brains, and will some day confront us 
when we are least ready to own them. 


The Sympathetic Nervous System. 


The sympathetic nervous system consists of a series of 
ganglia, extending from the head through the neck, thorax, and 
abdomen to the pelvis. There are four main pairs in the head and 
twenty-three in a row down the front of the backbone. These 
send out fibers to the blood vessels and the inner organs of the 
body. These ganglia vary much in size—some being as large as 
a pea while others are microscopic. They are made up of gray 
matter and are connected with each other and with the spinal cord 
by the nerve fibers. ‘The two principal ganglia of the abdominal 
cavity are the largest in the system, and the branches from these 
unite to form the solar plexus, which lies just back of the stomach. 
This ganglion sends nerves to the different abdominal plexuses 
and also to the blood vessels that lie in course of the intestines and 
the other abdominal organs. The sympathetic system furnishes 
the main part of the nerves controlling digestion and secretion. 
The sympathetic system of nerves is much slower in action than 
the cerebro-spinal system. A person may have his sympathetic 
system of nerves diseased, but the trouble may not declare itself 
for hours, while with the cerebro-spinal system the warning is in- 
stantaneous. Not much knowledge can be gained from the study 
of this system of nerves because of their sheltered position, also 
. because it is difficult to separate them from the cerebro-spinal 
nerves. | 


Its Use to the Body. 


The process of digestion is mainly regulated by the sym- 
pathetic system. When we eat, the food irritates the nervous 
ganglia of the abdomen, and, through their influence, the whole 
work of digestion and absorption is carried on. The sympathetic 
_ nerves may transmit both motor and sensory impulses. 

The ganglia are constantly receiving impulses from the 
sensory nerves, letting them know of the needs of the cells, the 


162 FOURTH QUARTER 


organs of secretions, and the movements of the arteries and di- 
gestive organs. In answer to these, the ganglia sends out com- 
mands to the gland cells to produce their secretions, and to the 
muscles of the arteries and intestines to expand or contract. 
When one organ is affected by disease, all the other organs like- 
wise seem to be deranged. ‘This is due to the action of the sym- 
pathetic system of nerves, so called because they seem to make 
the various organs act in sympathy with one another. One fact 
is of interest in connection with the study of this system, and that 
is, the brain has no direct control over the ganglia. 


‘ Hygiene of the Nervous System—Rest 


Rest is as essential to the brain as it is to the body. Rest 
may take on several forms. The one we usually resort to is 
change of occupation. If during the day, we have been concen- 
trating our attention on some one thing for quite a time, we find 
our interest lags, our mind refuses to act clearly, and we say we 
are brain tired. One of the most valuable habits which we can 
form while still young is that of mental concentration. But in 
order that our minds may concentrate upon any thing it must have 
frequent intervals of rest and recreation. Each must choose his 
own time and manner of mind rest and recreation. What would 
rest one would be work for another. But one rule will be found 
true in all cases. If we wish to rest our brains and give them 
recreation, we must do something we want to do, and not because 
we must. i 


Sleep. 


The most complete kind of rest for both body and mind is 
sleep. When we are in a dreamless sleep, our minds are entirely 
at rest. If we dream, some parts of the brain are at work. The 
amount of sleep needed various with the person. Very young 
children need ten or twelve hours a day, while eight to ten is suf- 
ficient for adults. Some people have been known who got along 
with as little as four hours per day, but such persons were usu- 
ally known to supplement this meager allowance with frequent © 
“cat-naps”. It is said that Napoleon never remained in bed more 
than four hours, but it was a well known fact that he slept for 


ae 


FOURTH QUARTER 163 


hours at a time while riding horseback with his armies on the 
march. Much less sleep is needed by old than by young people, 
for an old person’s activity during his waking hours is corres- 
pondingly less than that of a young person. Sleep has been de- 
fined as a rest from conscious effort. It should be regular, and 
not broken into, so that the body and brain may form regular 
habits in regard to their rest. 


The Five Senses. 


From this complex system of brain, nerves, and spinal cord, 
we naturally expect most exact results. As we have already seen, 
they operate for the most part through what we know as the five 
senses. The brain being inclosed as it is in its tight box of bone, 
must have some special way in which it may come in contact with 
the oustide world. This is through the organs of hearing, seeing, 
smelling, tasting, and touch. There are many impulses which 
may send the sensation of touch to thé brain, because the nerves 
carrying such messages are scattered all through the skin. For 
this reason it is often called the “‘common sense.” 

Light usually starts impulses from the eye to its nerve, and 
thus to the brain, while sound excites the nerve of the ear. These 
nerves, then, we speak of as the nerves of sight and of hearing. 
Some substances excite the nerves of the tongue and we say a 
thing tastes so and so, while others, acting upon the nose, cause us 
to recognize smells. 


Sense of Touch. 


Studying the sense of touch, in a way, is a mere review, of 
the actions of the sensory nerves. The special sense of touch is 
aroused without the need of any special organ. When the epithe- 
lium of the skin is brought in contact with anything, a feeling of 
temperature, a sense of weight, or a feeling of touch, or pain is 
carried to the central nerve cell. 

All these experiences are usually included under the general 
term, touch. By means of this sense we gain our ideas of size, 
shape, moisture, and surface finish. A sensation may not be un- 
pleasant in itself, but if too frequently repeated or repeated with 


164 FOURTH QUARTER 


too much violence the result may be pain. This is not an evil in 
itself but really one of the bodily protections. If it were not for 


pain, we might injure ourselves seriously without recognizing the . 


fact. Pain, as one physician describes it, is supplication for more 
blood. Where the tissues are highly developed, there we will 
find the greatest numbe1 of nerves, and the greatest suffering 
when diseased, for the nerves are the sentinels warning us of in- 
jury to these parts. This sense is most fully developed in the 
forehead, the face, the tip of the tongue, the fingers, palms of the 
hands, and the toes and soles of the feet. The sense of touch is 
the first of the special senses to be developed. | 


Sense of Taste. 


The sense of taste is located on the tongue, and upper and 
back part of the mouth. By this sense we are protected in our 
selection of food. This was truer in our early ancestors than it 
is now, for, by eating many highly seasoned foods and by the use 
of much condiment, we have almost abused our sense of taste un- 
til it has lost much of its delicacy. All solids and gases must be 
dissolved before they can be tasted. Four tastes are generally 
recognized—bitter, sweet, sour, and salty. The sense of taste by 
many is considered to be wholly on the tongue. This is but partly 
true. The under side has no sense of taste, while the back and 
roof of the mouth has a strong sense of taste. The tongue is the 
principle organ of taste. The tongue contains numerous glands, 
as well as numerous bunches of papillae which are concerned with 
the sense of taste. A great many times when we imagine we taste 
a thing, it is really our sense of smell, which carries the sensation 
to the brain. For this reason, many things are insipid and taste- 
less when we have a cold in the nose. The back of the tongue is 
more sensitive to salt and bitter substances, while the edges are 
most sensitive to sweet and sour substances. 


Sense of Smell. 


The nose is the chief organ of the sense of smell. It is by 
far the most delicate of all senses. In order that odors may be 
perceived, air must pass through the nostrils, therefore a person 
generally sniffs when he desires to perceive the odor more keenly. 


FOURTH QUARTER 165 
The sense of smell is more highly developed in. animals than in 


man. The sense of smell enables us to detect many poisonous 
gases which, in time, would prove harmful. ‘It also guides us in 
the selection of our food, and warns us against bad air, and un- 
healthful places. In order for us to smell objects, it is not neces- 
sary for the object to touch the nose, for the air containing the 
odor of the object is drawn into the nose. 


Use of These Special Sensations. 


The senses of touch, taste and smell are guards for us which 
wise nature has developed for the special protection of our bodies. 
One has but to touch a hot stove slightly, when the touch sense 
warns us of danger. Were it not for this, we might fatally in- 
jure the body without knowing it at all. The sense of taste 
among civilized people is more aid to enjoyment than real pro- 
tection for, without it, all food would taste alike to us. Among 
the lower forms of civilization and among animals, it is a protec- 
tion against harmful substances, for almost all poisons have a 
peculiar, unpleasant taste. Our sense of smell aids us in detect- 
ing obnoxious gases and such harmful air poisoners. It really 
is a sentinel for the lungs in that it makes it unpleasant or impos- 
sible to breathe air harmful to the lungs in any way. 


Hearing. Parts of the Ear. 


The outer part of the organ of hearing, commonly known as 
the ear, really has very little to do with hearing. It merely col- 
lects the sound waves and conveys them to the ear proper. This 
‘inner ear is within the head, buried in the bones. The bone in 
which the inner ear is buried is often called the stony bone, and 
is the hardest bone in the body. The ear is one of the most com- 
plicated organs of the body. From the outer ear a small pas- 
sageway leads. This is slightly bent up, then curves downward, 
and is kept soft and moist by the secretion of ear wax. This 
passage is shut off from the middle ear by a heavy membrane 
called the tympanic membrane or ear drum. Behind this is a 
cavity or middle ear. In this are found the three ear bones. 
This cavity is filled with air supplied through the Eustachian tube. 
Beyond the middle ear is the inner ear, and here is found the true 
organ of hearing. In this part there are many nerves. 


166 FOURTH QUARTER 


Sound waves striking the ear drum agitate the earbones 
which, in turn, carry the sound waves to the nerves of the inner 
ear. When these carry it to the brain, we say we hear. 


Structure and Use of Each Part. 


The outer ear as we have seen, is composed of rings of car- 
tilage covered with skin and serves largely as a sound wave col- 
lector. The passageway concentrates these waves upon the ear 
drum which in turn pass them on to the bones of the ear. These, 
by vibrating, stimulate the nerve of the inner ear and over this the 
sound is conveyed to the brain. 


How We Hear. 


Whenever one object strikes another, sound waves are pro- 
duced which resemble waves on water when a stone has been 
dropped into it. 

These sound waves increase in diameter until they strike the 
ear drum. When the ear drum or tympanum vibrates, the im- 
pulse is passed on to the ear bones which, in turn, convey it to 
the fluids of the inner ear. Here the nerve catches the impulse 
and carries it to the brain and we hear the sound. 

The bones in the ear, although very small, are covered with 
a periosteum, have cartileges, ligaments, and muscles. On ac- 
count of their shape are called hammer, anvil, and stirrup bones. 


Relation of Hearing to Speech. 


Strange as it may seem, the sense of hearing and speech are 
closely felated. Children born deaf cannot talk, not because the 
organs of speech are not developed, but because they cannot learn 
by hearing how sounds are made and modulated. 

With in the last few years deaf mutes have been taught to 
talk so they can be understood, but their voices are usually hard, 
high pitched, and unmodulated, much like a cheap graphophone. 


Hearing Affected By Growths in the Throat. 


When we learn the importance of the Eustachian tube in 
keeping the air pressure equal on both sies of the ear drum, we 


FOURTH QUARTER 167 


realize how necessary to keen hearing it is that this tube be kept 
healthy and unobstructed. When a physician examines a person 
for deafness, one of the first places tested is this passageway. 

Frequently colds which have led to a catarrhal condition are 
the most usual causes of trouble to this tube. Not only may a 
catarrhal condition be the result of neglected colds, but the in- 
flammation may spread back into the pharynx. Here then are a 
set of tonsil-like glands which may become inflamed until they 
block the passageway into the nose, entirely up, and one is forced 
to breathe through the mouth. These swollen bodies are now 
known as adenoids, and are a fruitful source of deafness, earache, 
and kindred diseases among children. 

It has been proved that all mouth breathers are Beets in 
hearing. 


Seeing. The Eye; Coats. 


The eye is the organ of sight; it is nearly sperical, and about 
an inch in diameter. The eye is carefully inclosed within the bony 
box of the skull. It is protected by an overhanging brow, two 
muscular curtains that can close over the eye, and the eyelashes 
at the edge of the lids which prevent particles of dust and other 
substances from entering the eye. The eye is covered by three 
coats. The first is the sclerotic coat, which is a white, thick tough 
membrane, which gives shape to the eyeball. The sclerotic coat 
covers about five-sixths of the eye, and the front one-sixth is 
called the cornea. The second coat is the choroid. It lies under 
the cornea. It is the part of the eye which contains the coloring 
matter which gives the dark color to the interior of the eye. This 
iris is in front of the cornea. It is the visible colored part of the 
eye in the center of the cornea is a round hole called the pupil. 
_ There are muscles around the pupil which can make it larger or 
smaller. 

Suppose we go from a well lighted room into a darker room 
we cannot see until the muscles allow the pupil to become larger 
so that more light can enter. The third coat is called the retina 
semi; it lies in the back of the eye and in this are spread the optic 
nerves. This retina is very smooth, thin, and of a grayish white 
membrane. It is not sensitive to anything but light. 


168 FOURTH QUARTER 


A blow on the head which might cause pain in the outer coats 
of the eye might not hurt the retina at all. 


Humors of the Eye. 


There are two humors in the eye—the aqueous and the vit- _ 


reous. The aqueous is between the cornea and the crystalline 
lens. The vitreous humor fills the space back of the lens. If it 
were not for these two humors, the eyeball would lose it shape. 

The iris is another part of the eye and has an important work 
to perform. It gives the eye its color and varies from blue to 
dark brown. It is controlled by muscles. In the center of this 
iris is a small, round, black hole. This hole is the pupil. The 
muscles of the iris control the pupil so that the right amount of 
light can enter. 


How We See. 


In our study of the ears we learned how sound waves were 
carried by the air to the ear. In much the same way, waves of 
light are carried through the air, or by the ether to the eye. A 
sound is produced by air waves, so light is produced by ether 
waves. Any light sets in motion waves of ether, which pass 
through the pupil of the eye to the retina where they are trans- 
mitted by the optic nerve to the brain, and then we see the light. 


Care of the Eye. 


There is scarcely any part of the body we abuse more regu- 
larly than we do the eyes. Many pupils are born with actual de- 
fects of vision, which must be remedied or they will in time prove 
serious. 


Reading in a poor light or on the train are two of the most . 


common ways we abuse the eyes. We should never read or study 
with the light directly before the face, but it should always come 
from the back or from over the left shoulder. There are many 
diseases—especially fevers and measles, which leave the eyes in 
a weakened condition and it is very necessary that, after such 
sickness, the eyes be given a period of absolute rest. We should 


never read while lying down for this is very harmful to the eyes. 


FOURTH QUARTER 169 


Whenever our eyes burn and begin to ache, it is a sure sign they 
are tired and need rest. , 

Care should be taken that when particles get into our eyes 
they should be removed before the eyes become inflamed. Never 
rub the eyes with the fingers, first, it is not polite; second, 
we might introduce a foreign matter. Every person should have 
his own towel. Many persons have contracted serious diseases 
by using a towel that some one else who had a contagious disease 
of the eyes had used. 


Methods of Resting the Eyes During Class. 


We may rest our eyes in several ways during class work. 
Suppose we have been studying very hard and have had our eyes 
closely fastened on our books. We may rest our eyes by looking 
out of the window at some object in the distance. Sometimes 
a mere change of light direction will rest the eyes, therefore, it is 
a good plan to have pupils exchange seats during class recitation. 
Merely closing the eyes for a few minutes will rest the eves. 
Bathing the eyes in hot water is also good for them. 


Common Defects of the Vision. 


Color blindness is a common defect of sight. When a person 
is troubled with this, he is unable to distinguish between certain 
colors. Usually the trouble is between red and green. This is 
an important matter among railroad men and sailors, where it is 
necessary for them to know the red and green signais. In all 
parts of the world special attention is being paid to this subject, 
and the eyes of all railway men and sailors must be systematically 
tested. 

Another common defect of vision is that known as farsizht. 
This is caused by the lens of the eye becoming tov flattened. In 
this case the persons so afflicted cannot see objects close to them 
_as well as they can those at a distance. This defect can be easily 
remedied by wearing proper glasses. Another commnion defect is 
near-sightedness. Ifa person 1s troubled with this, it is necessary 
to hold the object or reading matter close to the eyes. This is apt 
to cause the person to lean over so that he will be near to that 


170 a FOURTH QUARTER: 


which he wishes to see, and, after a time, might cae 
shoulders. Near-sighted people must wear acitalte glasses. 


Another defect is astigmatism; it is not so common as 1 
sightedness or farsightedness. It is caused by the lens in ‘the ey 
being curved more in one part than in another. This also ma 
remedied by properly ground glasses. * 


Cataracts are thickening of the lens, and may be ia 
having an operation performed. The physician will remov 
lens, but spectacles must be worn afterwards to take ay plz 
the lens. ; 


Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco Upon Sense Perceptio 


We have learned that alcohol is dangerous to all parts 
body, but in our past work we have learned that where 
nerves are most numerous, the effect of alcohol is most ke ly 
felt. The organs of sense, besides being supplied with ‘ne 
each has its own special nerve. When we had our study on. 
organs of speech, we learned that they were seriously affecte 
both tobacco and alcohol. Tobacco causes a constant hacki 
cough, while alcohol weakens the muscles cone the” 
cords. 5 


On the eye, we find alcohol works great harm. by weak 
the optic nerve, while the effect of tobacco is-still greater. 
dim the vision. 


Thus it is with all the special organs. These organs deper 
upon the nerves for their accuracy and delicacy of perception, . 
if these nerves are soaked in alcohol and their tissues become 
flamed ae hardened, we cannot expect the same serve 


use a tobacco. 


o OR aR Fi Seni ie or Pini, Ree Me eae hte 2s faith tous els Wat Grae (Nak 
Lean aOR ee SORES | TARPS REE ao OME Minn 
brane bs eta aie Ma SPA) ike YT Ge ae Deve Cw ee ay, : 4 
Bee ed yee Les Nee th Soe eh Hh ee 4 iy, Riis: fae a 
nas Md ‘ i ; 


v Sie 


Aaa 


nos 
i 
Ly) 


A eke 
Puget 


AE. 


Jaan 

ats) iy fi 
oi ede 
Pane 8 


ae 


at li F ye 


UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 


iN it 


